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Spring 2023 > Plant Bio Exam 1 > Flashcards

Plant Bio Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Herbaceous tissue of the primary plant body develops from the what?

A

apical meristem

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2
Q

Vascular tissues occurs in what in the stem?

A

distinct bundles

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3
Q

In woody species, what are produced in the stem & root from activity of other meristems?

A

secondary tissues

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4
Q

produces wood containing secondary xylem

A

vascular cambium

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5
Q

produces bark containing secondary phloem and cork

A

cork cambium

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6
Q

Vascular cambium and cork cambium constitute the plants what?

A

secondary body

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7
Q

Woody plants are a combination of what?

A

primary and secondary tissue

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8
Q

A herbaceous plant’s conducting capacity is set after what?

A

a portion of stem or root is mature

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9
Q

Woody plants become wider every year by what?

A

accumulation of wood and bark, giving them a greater conducting capacity

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10
Q

Disadvantages to secondary growth (being woody)

A
  • greater need for defenses, both structural and chemical to survive for a long time
  • must use energy & nutrient resources for winterizing their bodies in temperate climates
  • expensive metabolically to construct wood and bark
  • Woody plants may not reproduce until they are several years old due to the energy spent on other activities
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11
Q

All woody trees and shrubs (including gymnosperms) descended from one group of what?

A

ancestral woody plants that arose about 370 million years ago
- therefore ‘Wood’ is an ancient trait and has evolved infrequently

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12
Q

Most evidence indicates that the first flowering plants were what?

A

woody

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13
Q

What is the derived condition of the herbaceous condition?

A

loss of wood

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14
Q

True secondary growth (wood) occurs in what?

A
  • many eudicots
  • most basal angiosperms
  • all gymnosperms
  • but never in ferns or monocots
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15
Q

What initially evolved from a woody ancestor but later lost the ability to produce woody tissues?

A

monocots

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16
Q

the meristem that produces the wood of the secondary plant body

A

Vascular cambium

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17
Q

-It originates as a layer of cell that lies between the xylem
and phloem of a vascular bundle in a plant stem
- In herbaceous plants these cells do not divide (usually)
- But in woody plants this region becomes meristematic

A

Vascular cambium

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18
Q

occur between xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle

A

Fascicular cells

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19
Q

occur between vascular bundles

A

Interfascicular cells

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20
Q

To form a complete vascular cambium that completely encircles the plant stem, what two region of cells must become meristematic?

A

1) Fascicular cells
2) Interfascicular cells

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21
Q

Once developed, the vascular cambium will consist of what?

A

a single cell layer encircling the stem that is capable of continued division

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22
Q

What two types of cells does the vascular cambium contain?

A

1) Fusiform initials
2) Ray initials

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23
Q

long and narrow vascular cambium cells

A

fusiform initials

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24
Q

short, cuboid vascular cambium cells

A

Ray initials

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25
Q
  • long, tapered cells
  • divide to produce (to the interior) the elongate cells of xylem (wood): tracheids, vessel elements, fibers, parenchyma
  • also divide to produce (to the exterior) elongate cells of phloem: sieve cells, sieve tube members, companion cells, fibers, parenchyma
A

Fusiform initials

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26
Q

Fusiform initials of the vascular cambium divide longitudinally with what to produce two elongate cells?

A

periclinal wall (parallel to the meristem)
- one cell remains a fusiform initial (of the meristem)
- the other differentiates into either a cell of secondary xylem or secondary phloem

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27
Q

What (produced to the interior) increases greatly in diameter in growth, pushing the vascular cambia cells outward?

A

Secondary xylem cells
- produces stress on the cambial cells that can’t keep up

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28
Q

Vascular cambium cells must occasionally divide longitudinally by what (perpendicular to the cambium’s surface)?

A

anticlinal walls
- allows the cambium to add cells and increase in diameter and keep up with the increasing girth of the woody layer underneath

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29
Q
  • short and cube-shaped
  • divide to form xylem or phloem parenchyma that functions in storage or as albuminous cells (in gymnosperms)
A

Ray initials

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30
Q

Within the vascular cambium, Fusiform initials may occur (depending on the tree species):

A
  • in regular horizontal rows (storied cambium)
  • irregularly, w/o any horizontal pattern (nonstoried cambium)
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31
Q

Within the vascular cambium, Ray initials are grouped together in what?

A

short vertical rows
- one cell wide (uniseriate)
- two cells wide (biseriate)
- many cells wide (multiseriate)

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32
Q

Vascular cambium never has what?

A

large regions of just fusiform initials or just ray initials; it is always mixed

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33
Q

The overall ratio of fusiform initials to ray initials for a species is what?

A

relatively constant
- under precise genetic/developmental control

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34
Q

Types of wood cells:

A
  • secondary xylem (wood)
  • an axial (vertical) system
  • a radial (horizontal) system
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35
Q

contains all of the cell types that occur in primary xylem

A

Secondary xylem (wood)

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36
Q

derived from fusiform initials

A

Axial (vertical) systems

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37
Q

develops from the ray initials

A

radial (horizontal) system

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38
Q

The axial system contains what?

A
  • Tracheary elements
  • fibers
  • parenchyma
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39
Q

tracheids and vessels that carry out vertical conduction of water through the wood

A

Tracheary elements

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40
Q

provide strength

A

fibers

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41
Q

serves as a temporary reservoir of water

A

parenchyma

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42
Q

Hardwoods vs softwoods

A
  • Hardwoods contain large amounts of fibers
  • Softwoods contain few or no fibers
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43
Q

Most gymnosperms (softwoods) contain only what?

A

tracheids in their axial systems
- fibers and parenchyma cells are sparse or absent

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44
Q

In woody angiosperms, the radial system (‘rays’) contains only what?

A

parenchyma
- arranged in uniserate, biseriate, or multiseriate arrays-

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45
Q

For woody plants in temperate regions: Where do growth rings occur?

A

in wood due to the differential growth of early (spring) wood versus late (summer) wood

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46
Q

what has high proportions of wide vessels or tracheids?

A

spring wood

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47
Q

what has fewer vessels or narrower, thick-walled tracheids?

A

summer wood

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48
Q

What makes up 1 year’s growth, or annual (growth) ring?

A

Early wood and late wood

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49
Q

wood with vessels found mostly in early wood

A

ring porous

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50
Q

Ring porous species include:

A
  • oaks
  • hickories
  • ashes
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51
Q

wood with vessels found throughout

A

diffuse porous

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52
Q

diffuse porous species include

A
  • red maple
  • black gum
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53
Q
  • center of a log
  • darker, drier, andmore fragrant
A

heartwood

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54
Q

-outer log
- light colored

A

Sapwood

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55
Q
  • denser
  • contains less water
  • more aromatic
  • better acoustic properties
A

Heartwood

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56
Q

Heartwood forms when:

A
  • tracheary elements of older portions of wood no longer function in water transport
  • tree seals off this old vascular tissue in the wood to avoid fungal hyphae or bacteria from invading and causing rot
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57
Q

What forms inside the old tracheary elements?

A

tylosis

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58
Q

intruding plug from an adjacent (living) parenchyma cell

A

tylosis

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59
Q

What produces compounds that inhibit growth of bacteria and fungi?

A

Xylem parenchyma cells (XP)
- makes cells dark and aromatic

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60
Q

Eventually, the tracheary elements are completely plugged up and filled with what?

A

defense compounds

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61
Q

When the parenchyma cells die (in heartwood), they leave behind what?

A

dark, highly decay-resistant cells

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62
Q

What contributes to heartwood?

A

parenchyma and tracheary elements

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63
Q

In laterally spreading branches, what is necessary to provide support? What is the resulting wood called?

A
  • differential wood strength
  • reaction wood
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64
Q

In angiosperms, additional growth occurs mostly on which side of a branch?

A

upper side; tension wood (pulling up)

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65
Q
  • enriched with gelatinous fibers enriched with cellulose
  • grows on upper side of a branch
  • thicker annual rings on top of branch provide additional strength
  • thinner annual rings occur on bottom of branch
A

Tension wood

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66
Q

Conifers from reaction wood enriched with lignin on what side of the branch?

A

underside; compression wood (pushing down)

67
Q
  • thinner annual rings occur on top of branch
  • thicker annual rings on bottom of branch provide additional strength
  • enriched with lignin
A

Compression wood

68
Q

Many types of wood are prized for their what?

A

color, density, or acoustic properties

69
Q

$70/board foot

A

african blackwood

70
Q

$100/board foot

A

Black wood Ebony

71
Q

$12/board foot

A

Sandalwood

72
Q

$15/board foot

A

Black walnut

73
Q

$4-6/ board foot

A

Red oak

74
Q

What is responsible for conduction up and down the stem (or root) by the secondary xylem and phloem?

A

axial system

75
Q

What are formed just the same as xylem rays? They are formed by the same cuboid initials in the vascular cambium

A

horizontal rays into phloem
- rays consists of parenchyma storage cells

76
Q

What usually conducts for less than 1 year?

A

Sieve tube members and sieve cells of the secondary phloem

77
Q

Which layer is capable of conduction?

A

Only the innermost, newest layer of phloem

78
Q

The functioning phloem in a woody stem is what?

A

a narrow layer adjacent to the vascular cambium, and is always the most recent (youngest) layer produced

79
Q

As secondary tissues are added and pushed outward, tissues on the periphery either:

A
  • grow in circumference
  • are torn apart and collapse
80
Q

As circumferential stretching increases and older sieve elements die, some storage parenchyma cells of the phloem what?

A

are activated and undergo cell division
- this activity results in a new cambium meristem arising from within the old secondary phloem (cork cambium or phellogen)

81
Q

After each division, the inner cell remains _ while the outer cell differentiates into _?

A

cork cambium; cork (phellem) cell

82
Q

Vascular cambium is what?

A

bifacial
- secondary xylem to the inside
- secondary phloem to the outside

83
Q

Cork cambium is what?

A

unifacial (usually)
- cork to the outside

84
Q

In a few species, the cork cambium may produce some tissue to the inside to form a parenchyma layer known as what?

A

phelloderm

85
Q

The layers of cork cells (and the phelloderm, if present) are called what?

A

periderm

86
Q

The cortex is a mixture of what?

A

original cells of the cortex, older secondary phloem, and primary phloem all scrunched to the exterior of the stem cylinder

87
Q

The cork cambium is what?

A

irregular and not fixed in place

88
Q

New cork cambium forms where?

A

in younger secondary phloem closer to the vascular cambium
- this continually produces new bark tissues from layers underneath the surface, as older tissues are pushed outward

89
Q

All tissues of a woody stem that is exterior to the vascular cambium

A

bark

90
Q

secondary phloem part of bark

A

inner bark

91
Q

the dead, cork tissue produced by the cork cambium

A

outer bark

92
Q

Cork cells become filled with what and then die?

A

waxy suberin and defene compounds

93
Q

What makes the periderm waterproof and chemically inert?

A

the waxy suberin and defense compounds in cork cells
- great protection from herbivores and xylovores (wood eaters)

94
Q

Building materials and textiles made of bark

A
  • bark shingle siding
  • mulch
  • tanning hides
  • cloth
  • canoes
  • ropes
  • cork
  • substrate for paintings and maps
95
Q

Medicinals, flavorings, and drugs made of bark:

A
  • spices: cinnamon
  • hallucinogens: Ayahuasca
  • Medicines:
    – willow = aspirin
    – birch = anti-tumor
    – Pacific Yew = taxol
96
Q
  • process of removing the outermost layers of a woody stem in a ring
  • traditional method of killing trees without felling them
A

Girdling

97
Q

What does girdling remove?

A
  • periderm (cork layer)
  • cork cambium
  • secondary phloem layers
  • vascular cambium
  • sometimes sap wood
98
Q

Complete girdling means phloem is completely removed leading to

A

starvation and death of the upper tree portions

99
Q

Downside of cork:

A

impermeability of cork blocks the absorption of oxygen, preventing respiration of internal tissues

100
Q

Bark becomes permeable to oxygen when what?

A

special rounded cork cells are produced
- allows air spaces to develop between the outer layers of cork
- ‘lenticels’

101
Q

What creates an astounding diversity of tree bark?

A

differences in cork cambium activity and patterns of shedding of older outer bark

102
Q

What are the four main functions of roots?

A
  1. anchoring the plant firmly to a substrate
  2. absorbing water and minerals from soil
  3. producing hormones
  4. Storing carbohydrates in the winter
103
Q

Most eudicots have what?

A

taproots

104
Q

a single large root that develops from the radicle

A

taproots

105
Q

what are initially produced from the taproot?

A

Lateral roots

106
Q

Later, what may also produce more lateral roots, resulting in a highly branched root system?

A

Lateral roots

107
Q

Most monocots have what?

A

a fibrous root system

108
Q
  • mass of many similarly sized major roots near the soil surface
  • each giving rise to smaller lateral roots
  • the major roots are “adventitious”, arising in development from stem tissue
A

fibrous root system

109
Q

Major roots do not arise from what?

A

the radicle (as in tap-rooted plants)

110
Q

Roots grow from what?

A

an apical meristem at the root tip

111
Q

The initial apical meristem was a part of what?

A

the embryo in the seed

112
Q

The root apical meristem is protected by what?

A

a root cap

113
Q

Just behind the root cap and root apical meristem is the what?

A

zone of elongation

114
Q

Cells in this region undergo expansion

A

zone of elongation

115
Q

A region in which many of the epidermal cells extend out as narrow trichomes
- greatly increase the root’s surface area and absorbing capacity

A

root hair zone

116
Q

New lateral roots emerge from what?

A

the primary tap root from behind the root hair zone

117
Q
  • a protective structure produced by the underlying meristem
  • continually being worn away due to abrasion during growth through soil, so it continuously needs to be replaced
A

root cap

118
Q

cells of the root cap contain large starch granules that sink to the bottom of the cell called

A

statoliths

119
Q

What influences the flow of the hormone auxin upward in the root?

A

position and distribution of statoliths

120
Q

For a root extending horizontally, the statoliths cause what?

A

an increase in auxin on the underside of the root
- this decreases cell elongation on the underside
- cell elongation increases on the upper surface
- net effect: bending of the root tip downward

121
Q

Root cap cells secrete copious amounts of what?

A

mucigel

122
Q

a complex polysaccharide rich in carbohydrates and amino acids

A

mucigel

123
Q
  • lubricates passage of the root through the soil
  • chemically causes soil to release nutrients
  • fosters rapid growth of beneficial soil bacteria, which further help in uptake of nutrients
A

Mucigel

124
Q

zone around the root tip of a plant constitutes the

A

rhizosphere

125
Q

three zones of root apical meristem

A
  1. zone that yields new root cap cells
  2. a quiescent center
  3. upper zone that yields the cells of the growing root
126
Q

region of the root beyond the meristematic region
- cells are enlarging, but not fully mature yet
- epidermal, vascular tissue & cortex regions begin to differentiate

A

zone of elongation

127
Q

zone of maturation is marked by what?

A
  1. the production of root hairs growing by the epidermal cells
  2. differentiation of tissues
    - root cortex cells transfer water & minerals from the epidermis to the vascular region (eudicot e.g.)
128
Q

cell to cell through shared cytoplasm connected by plasmodesma

A

symplastic

129
Q

transport on the exterior of cells along the cell walls

A

apoplastic

130
Q

transport of water through the cortex may be

A

symplastic or apoplastic

131
Q
  • is one cell layer thick ad is the inner-most layer of cortex
  • marks the boundary between the cortex and vascular region
  • radial cell walls are rich in waterproof lignin and suberin; these constitute the Casparian strip
A

Endodermis

132
Q

tightly controls the flow of water and minerals that may pass through the vascular tissue

A

Casparian strips

133
Q

How do casparian strips control flow?

A

by cutting off the apoplastic pathway, forcing symplastic transport of water and minerals

134
Q

Materials can only pass to vascular tissues _

A

symplastically

135
Q

The casparian strip forces what?

A

symplastic flow

136
Q

Casparian strip options

A
  1. apoplastic flow is blocked
  2. apoplast to symplast
  3. symplastic flow
137
Q
  • irregular cylinder of parenchyma cells lying underneath the endodermis
  • capable of becoming meristematic and giving rise to lateral roots
A

Pericycle

138
Q
  • this is the central cylinder of tissue, interior to the endodermis
  • consists of pericycle, xylem, and phloem
  • xylem is in the center
  • phloem is outside of the xylem
  • no pith in eudicots
A

Vascular stele

139
Q

Within the xylem

A
  • inner widest cells are metaxylem (produced last)
  • outer narrow cells are protoxylem (produced first)
140
Q

Within phloem regions

A
  • protophloem occurs on outer side
  • metaphloem occurs on inner side
141
Q

the arrangement of tissue within the stele differs for what?

A

monocots

142
Q

Arrangement of tissue within the stele for monocots

A
  • large vessels and distinct bundles of phloem occur scattered throughout the region, interior to the endodermis
  • plus there’s a central pith region
143
Q

Mature portions of the root

A
  • root hairs have withered away
  • the endodermis deposits suberin and lignin over the radial and tangential surfaces of the casparian strip forming a completely sealed cylinder
  • this blocks all symplastic and anoplastic flow into the stele
  • water and minerals can therefore only enter into the cylinder from younger portions of the root
144
Q

eventually lateral roots emerge:

A

a group of cells of the pericycle divide to form a root primordium and organize into a root apical meristem

145
Q

By the time the lateral root emerges

A
  • it has formed a root cap
  • first protoxylem and protophloem of the vascular stele have begun to differentiate
  • this establishes a direct connection between the lateral root to the vascular tissues of the parent root
146
Q

Above the maturation zone, in the older parts of the root, big changes happen

A

1) Root hairs whither away
2) secondary cambia emerge to produce wood and bark of the root, just as in the stem

147
Q

Vascular cambium ->

A

root wood

148
Q

Cork cambium ->

A

root bark

149
Q

The root vascular cambium arises within what?

A

the stele when parenchyma (btw xylem and phloem) and a few pericycle cells join together to form the meristem

150
Q

The cambium is initially what?

A

irregular in shape (undulating) and positions the phloem to the exterior

151
Q

As the root vascular cambium begins producing columns of cells, its outline becomes what?

A

more regularly circular

152
Q

As in stems, the root vascular cambium produces what?

A
  • secondary xylem to the inside (OG primary xylem remains in center)
  • secondary phloem to the outside (OG primary phloem gets pushed to the exterior)
153
Q

Bark on roots is produced by what?

A

cork cambium (phellogen) that arisesin the pericycle

154
Q

Production of cork cell on the exterior of the cork cambium ultimately causes what to shed?

A

old endodermis, cortex, and epidermis

155
Q

Most woody roots have what?

A

high storage capacity

156
Q

storage occurs in what cells of the root?

A

parenchyma

157
Q

storage occurs in parenchyma cells of the root found in:

A
  1. Ray parenchyma cells (horizontal)
  2. Axial parenchyma cells (vertical)
    - both are products of the root vascular cambium
158
Q

The wood of a root is different than the wood of a stem in that:

A
  1. It is mostly parenchyma
  2. there are few vessels and no fibers
    - this wood is therefore well adapted for long-term storage
159
Q

Root parenchyma stores what?

A
  1. carbohydrates
  2. water
  3. proteins
160
Q

Storing materials in the roots have many advantages, including:

A
  1. roots are less visible as food for most foragers
  2. Root surroundings are more stable and protected from environmental fluctuations than aboveground parts
161
Q

for crops like carrots and radishes, the taproot that we consume is secondary growth (wood) modified for high capacity storage

A

Storage taproots

162
Q
  • tall plate-like roots of some tropical trees
  • upper side grows more rapidly than other parts of the root
  • brace the trunk from being blown over by wind or in thin soils
A

Buttress roots

163
Q

aerial roots of orchids have a specialized epidermis layer called a what?

A

Velamen; Velamen roots of epiphytes

164
Q

What prevents water loss in dry conditions of orchids?

A

velamen

Spring 2023 (10 decks)

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