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NHB > Planning > Flashcards

Planning Flashcards

1
Q

What are apraxias?

A

motor disorders in which there is a difficulty in performing purposeful or voluntary movements

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2
Q

What are the 4 main kinds of apraxia

A

limb
oral
agraphic
constructional

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3
Q

What are limb and oral apraxias

A

Limb: problems with arm, hand and finger movements

oral: problems with programming movements of the tongue, lips and throat to produce sequences of speech

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4
Q

What are agraphic and constructional apraxias

A

agraphic: particular type of writing deficit

constructional; inability to copy mental or visual pictures

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5
Q

What does it mean to say many apraxias are ideomotor apraxias

A

they represent the inability to perform purposeful movement either to command or on imitation

ie. in limb apraxia, waving, combing ones hair, brushing ones teeth, hammering a nail, dressing, with usually a preserved ability to perform these actions spontaneously

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6
Q

How can you test if an apraxia has affected learning new sequences of actions

A

Kimura box test

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7
Q

What do apraxias result from generally

A

damage to posterior parietal cortex (areas 5 and 7) and frontal premotor areas as well as the connections between them

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8
Q

Which apraxias arise from different brain lesions (4)

A

Constructional apraxia: right parietal damage,

limb apraxia: bilateral damage to parietal or premotor cortex.

Deficits in execution AND recognition of movements associated with parietal damage

deficits in execution but NOT recognition of movements,
associated with premotor damage

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9
Q

What are the the different parts of the posterior parietal cortex involved in (for actions)

A

Rostral part mainly concerned with integration of somatosensory and proprioceptive information relating the relative position of body segments to their movement,

posterior part is dominated by the integration of visual information about events located in the external environment

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10
Q

What did Mountcastle conclude was one of the main functions of the posterior parietal cortex with respect to action control

A

control of reaching into extra-personal space, ie. it mediates between spatial perception and the direction of action.

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11
Q

What evidence suggests the posterior parietal cortex controls
reaching into extra-personal space? (2)

A

1) . Lesions in monkeys impair sequential reaching movements, ie. removing polo mints from a bent wire.
2) . Recordings from single units in monkeys demonstrate the existence of neurons within area 7 that (i) fire when the monkey detects a visual target, increase firing as an arm is projected towards the target and decrease firing when the target is reached (arm projection neurons) and (ii) fire when the target is manipulated (manipulation neurons).

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12
Q

How is the posterior parietal cortex connected to the frontal lobes

A

reciprocally connected to the lateral and medial premotor areas of the frontal lobes

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13
Q

Both PM and SMA have connections with motor cortex and posterior parietal cortex. What differing connections do they have?

A

lateral premotor cortex (PM) is connected with the cerebellum (more so than with basal ganglia) whilst SMA is connected with the basal ganglia (more so than with cerebellum)

both have some outputs to the subcortical motor systems as well as to the cortico-spinal tract via primary motor cortex, area 4

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14
Q

What are the PM and SMA both thought to be involved in

A

programming of actions ie. sequencing the temporal order of movements, selecting the appropriate action when there are alternatives, and optimising the conditions for their performance, eg. postural adjustments and inhibiting irrelevant movements.

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15
Q

How does the specialised function of the PM and SMA differ?

A

SMA is particularly important for bimanual co-ordination and contributes to movement when there are no external cues (internal generation of action)

whilst lateral premotor cortex makes the greater contribution when a subject has to use external cues to direct action

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16
Q

lateral premotor cortex makes the greater contribution when a subject has to use external cues to direct action. Therefore, what type of neuron might reside here?

A

mirror neurons (in the ventral regions)

also found in the inferior parietal cortex

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17
Q

When are mirror neurons active

what are they proposed to do

A

active not only when monkey makes a movement but also when same movement produced by others

contribute to an animal’s ability to determine the intention of others.

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18
Q

Give 3 functional studies of the SMA to investigate its role in planning and action

A

1) . Ablation of SMA in monkeys causes (i). deficit in bimanual co-ordination, (ii). failure to orient hands and fingers accurately as they approach food, (iii). failure to raise hand (in the absence of external cues) in order to get peanut reward.
2) . Patients with SMA pathology may show alien hand syndrome; its actions are divorced from conscious control.
3) . SMA is far more activated when subjects are performing a learned sequence of finger movements rather than when relying on external cues to signal a novel sequence of finger movements (Old>new)

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19
Q

Give 2 functional studies of the lateral premotor cortex to investigate its role in planning and action

A

1). Ablation of PM in monkeys causes (i) deficit in performing hand actions based upon, or directed by, external cues.

2). PET studies reveal that there is greater activation in PM when subjects are relying on external cues to determine a sequence of finger movements
compared to when they are performing a sequence of finger movements from memory. (new>old)

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20
Q

Give an integral role of premotor areas eg PM and SMA

A

ability to inhibit inappropriate actions, in particular inappropriate reflexes

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21
Q

What is an easy way to test for damage to premotor areas

A

many reflexes that are present at birth and which become inhibited during development re-appear following damage to premotor areas, i.e. sucking, rooting, grasping.

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22
Q

According to Denny-Brown, where do the mechanisms for reflexes present at birth reside?

A

in the parietal lobe and are normally inhibited by the frontal lobes.

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23
Q

What are the particularly important interactions the prefrontal cortex has with the rest of the brain for executive control

A

r (i). the specialized processing modules in the posterior cortex including parietal (spatial attention) and inferotemporal (feature attention) areas

(ii) . the declarative memory systems in the temporal lobes including the rhinal cortex (recognition memory) and hippocampus (scene/episodic memory)
(iii) . the limbic structures involved in emotional processing including the amygdala and hypothalamus
(iv) . the basal ganglia that are involved in the higher-order control of action.

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24
Q

True or false

the prefrontal cortex is not a homogenous structure

A

true
Different areas within the prefrontal cortex have different connectivity patterns with the rest of the brain and lesions of these different
areas in both monkeys and humans result in different ehavioural deficits.

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25
Q

What is the difference between disinhibition of simple reflexes and inhibition of other behaviors when the PFC is damaged?

A

damage results in inhibition of complex behaviours

eg sorting behaviour

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26
Q

Give a classic deficit in inhibitory control seen following PFC damage?

A

failure to inhibit previously relevant rules governing behaviour,

i.e. frontal lesioned patients on the Wisconsin Card Sort Test, having learned to sort a pack of cards according to a particular dimension ie. colour, are unable to then switch to sorting the cards according to a different dimension ie. shape. Instead they perseverate, i.e. persist in sorting according to the previously correct dimension.

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27
Q

Perseverative behaviour is associated with what type of PCF damage specifically?

A

lateral PCF

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28
Q

True or false

Monkeys with PCF damage show perseverative behaviour

A

true
show behavioral inflexibility:
On a task known as ‘discrimination reversal’, having learned that one object, out of a pair of objects, is associated with reward, monkeys find it difficult to switch their responding to the other object when that object becomes rewarded instead.

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29
Q

What have PET studies shown the PCF to be part of

what was the experiment done?

A

a distributed neuronal network
involved in spatial and feature attention

Subjects are required to attend to one of three different perceptual features, colour, form or movement (selective attention conditions) or all three (divided attention).
DL/VL PFC activated most when selectively attending to spatial
/visual features, respectively.

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30
Q

How did lesions in monkey PCF affect working memory

A

impair delayed response tasks that require monkeys to remember, over a brief delay, spatial, object or proprioceptive information.

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31
Q

How are the effects of lesions of the PCF on delayed response tasks tested?

A

sample stage during which the monkey is a). shown a peanut being hidden in one of two locations (spatial version) , b). shown one of two objects (object version) or c). required to press a lever one or five times (proprioceptive version).

After a brief delay of a few seconds, in the
choice stage of the task, monkeys have to a). choose the spatial location of the food reward that they have just seen hidden b). choose the object they have just seen or c). make the same response that they have just made ie. one or five lever presses

pfc lesions do not impair the ability of the monkey to choose the correct response if there is no delay.

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32
Q

Have there been impairments in working memory in humans who have PCF lesions?

A

impairments in spatial delayed response have been seen in humans with damage to dorsal pfc (object and proprioceptive not looked at).

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33
Q

Have there been electrical studies to confirm the role of the PCF in delay response tasks?

What did this lead Goldman-Rakic to suggest

A

Some neurons in lateral regions of pfc in monkeys have been shown to fire during the delay period of the spatial and object versions of the delayed response task

that the pfc is important for holding information, (that is relevant to action), ‘on-line’ or ‘in mind’.

34
Q

Summarise the role of the PCF in terms of focusing on and remembering external stimuli

A

appears necessary for attending selectively to stimuli in the external world as well as maintaining attention to stimuli, in their ‘mind’ (on-line) when they are no longer present in the outside world.

35
Q

What part of the PCF seems to be important in emotion

A

The orbital regions of the pfc:

have large reciprocal connections with the limbic system including the amygdala, hypothalamus and cingulate cortex

36
Q

What are the behavioural effects of damage to orbital regions of PCF

give 3 examples

A

disrupt social and emotional behaviour

submissive and solicitation behaviour shown by intact female monkeys in response to the advances of a male is replaced either by indifference or aggression in females with orbitofrontal damage.

these females show indifference towards their own offspring.

patient, EVR, with damage to orbital prefrontal cortex, was characterised as “incapable of either maintaining an enduring attachment to a sexual partner or functioning as a responsible parent”.

37
Q

How was GSR used to test the effect of damage to the orbital parts of the PCF

A

Impaired social behaviour in humans is accompanied by impaired autonomic activity to emotion provoking pictures such as nudity and mutilation but not to loud noises (note similarity to amygdala)

38
Q

What did Damasio suggest about the PCF and emotion

A

that the orbital region of the pfc can provide that ‘gut feeling’ in certain situations that help us to rule out, almost immediately, certain response options, whilst contemplating others
enabling the emotions to contribute to complex decision making

39
Q

How can different regions of the PCF be dissociated?

give an example

A

(i) by the different types of information that they process ie. spatial, visual, emotional, and
(ii) by the type of cognitive operations that they perform.

eg considerable evidence suggests the orbitofrontal cortex may be involved in selecting goals, i.e. deciding which of a number of positive or negative reinforcers present at any one time should be our current goal, whilst the dorsolateral regions are involved in the learning and planning of higher-order strategies to achieve the goal.

40
Q

Ultimately, what does successful planning of action require (5)

A

a mixture of different cognitive
abilities including
i. holding information on-line or ‘in mind’ to attend to it,
ii. filtering out irrelevant information,
iii. choosing an appropriate goal,
iv. Selecting the appropriate responses to fulfil the goal,
v. inhibiting inappropriate responses, etc

41
Q

What are the 2 key ways to think about probability

A

Frequentist

Bayesian

42
Q

What is the frequentist way of thinking about probability

A

Frequentists construe probabilities as long-run frequencies: if I keep tossing a fair coin, it will come up heads and tails equally often in the long run, and the probability of heads is 0.5.

From this perspective, it is not meaningful to assign probabilities to “one-off” events for which there is no long-run frequency

43
Q

How do Bayesians think of probability

A

s regard probabilities as statements about our state of knowledge or belief, and focus on the way that prior probabilities (initial states of knowledge/belief) should be updated in the light of new evidence/data.

44
Q

what does “availability heuristic” refer to

A

Tversky and Kahneman (1973) proposed that people often use an availability heuristic, such that they judge the probability of an event by assessing the ease with which relevant instances of that event can be called to mind.

45
Q

How well do people estimate the frequencies of rare deaths compared to common ones?

A

people greatly overestimate the probability of rare cause of death (e.g., botulism) and underestimate common ones (e.g., heart disease), consistent with disproportionate mental availability of the former because of biased media coverage.

46
Q

Give an experiment of when one category was easier to retrieve (because it was more famous) it was judged more frequent, even when it was actually experienced less often

A

gave people list of 19 famous women and 20 less famous men, or 19 famous men and 20 less famous women. One group then tried to recall the names on the list; famous names were recalled more often than non-famous ones, despite the
former being less frequent.
.

47
Q

What is the conjunction fallacy

A

occurs when people assign a higher probability to the conjunction of 2 events than to just one of them – e.g., judging p(A and B) > p(A). This violates a basic axiom of probability theory

48
Q

Give an example of the conjunction fallacy

A

estimate the number of words in 4 pages of a novel for the following;
a) _ _ _ _ i n g
vs
b) _ _ _ _ _ n _

people estimated a=13.4 and b= 4.7

obviously wrong

we are less accustomed to organizing/retrieving words based on their penultimate letter, so n words are harder to retrieve and thus seem rarer.

49
Q

What do subadditive probability judgments involve

A

judging the a “whole” to be less probable than the sum of its parts – or, more formally, judging the probability of a class of event to be less than the sum of the probabilities assigned to each component of that class.

50
Q

What has subadditivity been attributed to

A

the mental availability of the instances comprising a category: when people judge the probability of a category such as “none of the above”, they form an overall impression based on the retrieval of a few of the most accessible instances.

Explicitly “unpacking” the category can lead people to consider options that they would not otherwise have thought of, with a corresponding increase in the estimated probability

51
Q

What is base rate neglect

A

s when people underweight a priori probability when judging the probability of an event

52
Q

What is the inverse fallacy

A

eg confuses the probability of a positive test result given the presence of cancer, p(positive|cancer), with the probability of cancer given the positive test result, p(cancer|positive)

53
Q

What are natural frequencies

A

number of events of each type

eg saying 10 out of 1000 women have breast cancer, rather than 1%

expressing probabilities in this way increases the amount of people who understand correctly

54
Q

What is “representativeness heuristic”

A

where judgments of probability are based on an assessment of similarity

eg to judge the probability that I am an avid online gamer, you might judge how similar I look to your prototype/ stereotype of this category (i.e., how “representative” I am of that group)

this can lead to base rate neglect (forgets that a randomly selected individual could be part of any population)

55
Q

Give an example of how “representativeness heuristic” can lead to conjunction fallacy

A

when participants read a sketch of “Linda”, a single, outspoken, intelligent woman with a concern for social justice, she was judged more likely to be a “feminist bank teller” than “a bank teller”, despite the fact that the latter category subsumes the former.

Similarity-based judgment, like availability-based judgment, does not follow the axioms of probability theory

56
Q

What is the gambler’s fallacy

A

the belief that a run of one outcome makes that outcome less likely, when the events are actually independent. E.g., believing a coin is more likely to come up “heads” after a run of “tails”.

57
Q

What is the hot hand fallacy

A

believing that a run of one outcome makes that outcome more likely, when the events are actually independent. E.g., believing that you are sure to win the next bet on a roulette wheel because you have just won twice in a row

58
Q

What is the gambler’s fallacy often attributed to

A

representativeness heuristic: people expect a “local” sequence to be representative of the underlying process.

I know that a coin should, in the long run, produce equal numbers of heads and tails, so I expect any sequence of coin tosses to have this property. A run of heads means that a tails outcome will make the local sequence more representative of the data-generating process

59
Q

What real life data did Croson and Sundali find on the hot hand fallacy

A

found that gamblers placed more bets after winning than after losing, presumably because they thought they were more likely to win again

60
Q

What is anchoring

A

the assimilation of a numerical judgment towards an externally-provided candidate response. This affects many kinds of judgment, including probability judgments.

61
Q

Give an example of anchoring

A

Brewer et al (2007) had male HIV patients estimate the probability that the person they were having sex with would become infected if the condom broke. Before giving their numerical estimates, one group was asked whether the probability of infection was more or less than 1% (a “low anchor”); others were asked whether the probability was more or less than 90% (a “high anchor”). The low anchor group went on to estimate the probability of infection as 43%; the high anchor group gave an average estimate of 64%. It seems that simply considering the (uninformative/ ostensibly irrelevant) anchor value pulls estimates towards that value

62
Q

What is the psychological basis of anchoring

A

the anchor value as a starting point from which they adjust their estimates insufficiently, leading to the bias towards the anchor value.

63
Q

What is expected value

A

A rational way to choose between risky options would be to calculate the expected value (EV) of each option by weighting each outcome by its probability

64
Q

what is the equation for calculating the expected value

A

EV = p1a1 + p2a2 + …pnan

Where the p and a values are the probability and amount that make up the option.

65
Q

What does expected value fail to consider

A

risk aversion

66
Q

What is utility and how was it used to adapt expected outcome

give the equation

A

Utility can be thought of as the subjective value of an outcome, and is some transformation u(a) of the objective amount.

The expected utility of an option is:
EU = p1u(a1) + p2u(a2) + …pnu(an)
(Expected value is then a special case where u is the identity function.)

67
Q

Are decisions made according to expected utility rational?

A

yes in the sense that they conform to and follow from a set of axioms whose reasonableness it is hard to dispute (for example, that if A is preferred to B and B is preferred to C then A is preferred to C)

68
Q

How does expected utility take risk aversion into account

A

by positing that the utility function is concave –
people have diminishing sensitivity to increasingly large gains so that the subjective value of (for example) £200 is not twice that of £100

69
Q

Is expected utility useful

A

is a good normative model (a statement of how a rational agent should make decisions), but it has been comprehensively debunked as a description of how people actually behave

70
Q

What is a fundamental problem with expected utility

A

EU theory concerns the subjective value of final outcomes – one’s ultimate state of wealth after playing a gamble, for example. But real decisions often show framing effects, where changes in the way outcomes are described cause preference reversals.

71
Q

How does framing affect decision making

A

framing identical final outcomes as gains or losses

causes a preference reversal

72
Q

What is prospect theory

A

Prospect Theory assumes that outcomes are evaluated not as end states but as changes from a reference point.
This reference point is usually the status quo – e.g., one’s current wealth – but may also be an aspiration level or some other salient value.

73
Q

What is the graph of Prospect Theory

A

S-shaped value function which is concave for gains and convex for losses, where gains and losses are defined with respect to the current reference point.

ie people show diminishing sensitivity to progressively larger increases from the reference point, and diminishing sensitivity to progressively larger decreases from the reference point, too.

74
Q

What is loss aversion

A

in the S shaped prospect theory curve, it is steeper in the loss-domain than it is for gains – typically, it’s assumed to be about twice as steep.
This reflects the idea that “losses loom larger than gains” – i.e., that a loss of a given magnitude has greater subjective magnitude than a gain of the same size.

75
Q

What effect is the endowment effect an example of

A

loss aversion

argued to be irrational and a hindrance to the proper operation of markets

76
Q

What is the endowment effect

A

the finding that people value an item they already own more than they would be prepared to pay for the same item if they did not own it.

77
Q

what is the probability weighting function

A

like outcome values, there is a non-linear relationship between the stated probability and its effective value in the decision-process.

In particular, rare events and guaranteed outcomes are over-weighted

78
Q

Prospect Theory accommodates many of the “irrational” features our decision-making, but not all. Give an example of this

A

decoy effects

our assessments of value depend on the context established by the other options presented for consideration, even when rational decision-making would require that they be independent of this context

eg choice of small or large popcorn; large seems more valuable if a medium size is brought in even tho actual value hasn’t changed

79
Q

Give one explanation of the decoy effect

A

decoy makes it easier to justify the choice of the target item

80
Q

Give 5 further factors that affect our judgements that are not explored in the stats based decision making lecture

A
  • Emotional state
  • Developmental stage
  • Psychiatric/ neuropsychological conditions
  • Substance use/abuse
  • Personality

NHB (17 decks)

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