PID Flashcards
Define and explain which are the paradoxes in the field of individual differences.
The nature-nurture paradox: This refers to the question of how much of an individual’s characteristics are influenced by their genes (nature) versus their environment (nurture).
The consistency-change paradox: This refers to the tension between the idea that people are consistent in their characteristics over time (e.g. their personality) and the fact that people also change and develop over time.
The individuality-collectivism paradox: This refers to the tension between the idea that people are unique and individualistic, and the fact that people are also influenced by the groups and cultures they belong to.
The stability-plasticity paradox: This refers to the tension between the idea that people’s characteristics are relatively stable over time, and the fact that people are also capable of adapting and changing in response to new experiences and challenges.
The diversity-uniformity paradox: This refers to the tension between the idea that people are diverse and unique, and the fact that people also share many common characteristics and experiences.
Ideographic vs nomothetic type of study
Type of study
Idiographic (describe!)
Nomothetic (explore!)
Approach
· Emphasizes the uniqueness of every individualism study of the individual
· Focus on similarities between groups of individuals - UNIQUENESS comes only from the combination of the traits
study of classes or cohorts of individuals
Goal
· developing an in-depth understanding of the individual
The subject is a unique agent with a unique life history, with properties setting him/her apart from other individuals
· identify the basic structure of personality + minimum number of traits required for describing personality universally
The subject is an exemplar of a population and their corresponding personality traits and behaviours.
Method
· Qualitative methodologies to produce case studies – some generalizations across series of case studies
· Quantitative methods – a. explore structures of personality, b. produce measures of personality, c. explore relationship between variables across groups
Data
· Interviews, diaries, narratives, treatment of session data
· Self-report personality questionnaires, big data
Advantage
· depth of understanding of the individual, very detailed description, exceptional cases (also tabu topics, like sexual orientations in focus groups)
· discover the general principles that can have a predictive function
-analysation process is fast
Disadvantage
· difficult to make generalizations, not objective, analysation process is slow
· fairly superficial understanding of any one person + training needed to analyze the profile personality accurately, oversimplification
analysation is more difficult, and need an expert for that to use databases like SPSS
Situational va diapositional
Attribution theory looks into how individuals explain the causes of events and behaviors:
Type of attribution
Dispositional (internal / personal)
Situational (environmental / external)
Definition
Process of assigning a behavior’s cause to internal characteristics
Assigns the bahavior’s cause to an event or situation outside the individual’s control
Examples
Assigning causes to personality, traits, efforts, moods, judgments, abilities, motives or beliefs
Assigning causes to weather, other people’s attitudes, time, task difficulty and luck
Fundamental Attribution Error
Dispositional attribution is utilized when it comes to other’s error
Situational attribution is employed when it comes to one’s own error
What is your favorite personality theory ? Why ?
Founding figure of personality psychology.
Rejected both psychoanalytic approach to personality (too deep), and a behavioral approach, (not deep enough).
Uniqueness of each individual & the importance of the present context (as opposed to past history), for understanding the personality.
Allport’s Trait Theory
Allport’s theory of personality emphasizes the uniqueness of the individual and the internal cognitive and motivational processes that influence behavior. For example, intelligence, temperament, habits, skills, attitudes, and traits.
Allport (1937) believes that personality is biologically determined at birth, and shaped by a person’s environmental experience.
Personal experience/opinion: “My personality depends on who I’m surrounded with”
The study of personality from a historical perspective.
Earlier theories
Humor / humoralism → had its origin in the Ancient Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers posture, that an excess or deficiency of any of four distinct bodily fluids in a person which were named as humors, were thought to directly influence the temperament and health.
black bile
yellow bile
phlegm
blood
Phrenology → In the 19th Century phrenology was introduced, defined as a possibility of recognizing several intellectual and moral dispositions of man and animals by the configuration of their head, by Gall and Spurzheim. Influenced by this idea, Lombroso introduced the idea that criminals could be distinguished from non criminals by multiple physical anomalies
Galton at the end of the 19th century developed a range of measures of intelligence, aptitudes and attitudes and, most crucially, the statistical techniques that could be used to analyze this data. Galton also developed the first questionnaires and outlined statistical methods for ensuring their reliability. By collecting very large data sets from general population samples, he produced standardized normative values for a range of measures allowing the scientific investigation and analysis of individual differences. From this early work, the modern study of individual differences developed.
Behaviorism: . Assumes that all behaviors are either reflexes produced by a response to certain environmental stimuli, or a consequence of that individual’s history, including especially reinforcement and punishment, together with the individual’s current motivational state and controlling stimuli.
Focus on behavior/role of environmental factors
Three important authors in the history of individual differences where Bandura, Kelly and Rotter the first two take the behaviorism approach but adding something close to what we now name cognition (SEE LATER, QUESTION 6.!!)
While Rotter postulated that personality depends on the environment-individual interaction and that behavior was not an automatic response→Social Learning Theory. Introducing the theory of locus of control.
What is self serving bias
The tendency to make attributions so that they can perceive oneself favorably - In other words, people often unconsciously make decisions that serve themselves in ways that other people might view as indefensible or unethical.
If the outcome is positive we make an internal attribution to it but if the outcome is negative we make an external attribution to it
It is the belief that individuals tend to ascribe success to their own abilities and efforts, but ascribe failure to external factors → Fundamental Attribution Error (dispositional VS Situational attribution)
Serve the self’s need for esteem → e.g. a student who attributes earning a good grade on an exam to their own intelligence and preparation but attributes earning a poor grade to the teacher’s poor teaching ability
What are the main contributions of Kelly and bandura to personality ?
Bandura contributed with:
By determining the beliefs a person holds regarding their power to affect situations, it strongly influences both the power a person actually has to face challenges competently and the choices a person is most likely to make.
Say two similarly anxious people have to give a speech:
The one with higher SE is more likely to be successful
the first one of self efficacy that explains how our own perception of our capacity can affect our behavior outcome in a positive or negative way. Higher self efficiency is correlated with a better performance in life.
in its applications of changing behavior methods resulting in doing the task, vicarious experience (seeing someone with the same fears succeeding), participant modeling (imitation).
Social cognitive theory, and also he explained the theory of model match consequences. in which there are three components, the model: closeness to the model, relation with them, the observer: attributes, and the consequences of imitation.
Kelly contributed with:
•People not seen as solely motivated by instincts (drive/psychodynamic models) or learning history (learning/behavioral theories) but by their need to characterize and predict events in their social world.
•The constructs people develop for construing experience have the potential to change, therefore Kelly’s theory of personality is less deterministic than drive or learning theory.
Personal construct theory: people’s behavior is motivated by their need to characterize and predict events in their social world. Which was also implemented in therapy for helping people reconstruct their maladaptive constructs and create new useful ones.
The assessment technique that Kelly is best known for is the role construct repertory test, more commonly known as the rep grid test.
What are two leading personality constructs authors linked to behaviorism ?
Bandura and skinner
As described in Chapter 7, “Learning and Conditioning,” B. F. Skinner is well known for describing the principles of operant conditioning. Skinner believed that the environment determines behavior. According to his view, people have consistent behavior patterns because they have particular kinds of Response Tendencies. This means that over time, people learn to behave in particular ways. Behaviors that have positive consequences tend to increase, while behaviors that have negative consequences tend to decrease.
Skinner didn’t think that childhood played an especially important role in shaping personality. Instead, he thought that personality develops over the whole life span. People’s responses change as they encounter new situations.
Example: When Jeff was young, he lived in the suburbs. He developed a liking for fast driving because his friends enjoyed riding with him and he never got speeding tickets. After he left college, though, he moved to the city. Whenever he drove fast, he got a speeding ticket. Also, his new friends were much more cautious about driving in fast cars. Now Jeff doesn’t like to drive fast and considers himself to be a cautious person.
Albert Bandura’s Ideas
Albert Bandura pointed out that people learn to respond in particular ways by watching other people, who are called models. See Chapter 7, “Learning and Conditioning,” for more information on Bandura’s research on observational learning.
Although Bandura agrees that personality arises through learning, he believes that conditioning is not an automatic, mechanical process. He and other theorists believe that cognitive processes like thinking and reasoning are important in learning. The kind of behaviorism they advocate is called social-cognitive learning
Describe Rotter’s idea of locus of control, make real-life examples for externals and internals and illustrate its link to depression
Locus of control is a person’s perception of the extent to which they control what happens to them. In Rotter’s idea of locus of control individuals can be described as internals or externals.
Internals attribute: internal factors such as their actions and behaviours to the outcome of a situation. They believe they impact what happens to them in a situation.
Externals believe what happens to them is the product of an external force, for example fate or God. They do not think they impact or contribute to the outcome of a situation.
Consider an individual who is not happy with their career and feels like they are not progressing as they would like. In this situation an external would blame their boss for not giving them a promotion or the lack of high position jobs in their field or where they live. They would blame their lack of career advancement (their situation on external forces (their boss, or the job market). They would believe that there is nothing they can do to advance their career because they do not have the power to advance their career through their own actions. Conversely internals in this situation would blame their lack of progress on their lack of qualifications, lack of networking or lack of applying for jobs. An internal would believe that if they became more qualified or networked more or applied for more jobs they would contribute to the advancement of their career. They would believe that through these actions they could impact the outcome of their situation.
*you can do the same example with the goal of wanting to be a better football player - internals would practice more, ask their coach for advice, eat healthy, get enough sleep and stay away from junk food and alcohol whereas externals may say the referee or linesman doesn’t like them or that their other teammates don’t pass the ball to them.
Studies have shown that external locus of control is linked with learned helplessness and depression. People with an external locus of control may be more prone to feelings of helplessness and hopelessness, which are common symptoms of depression.Externals continuously attribute external factors as the cause of what happens to them. Through reinforcement externals believe that they have no control over what happens to them (learned helplessness). This sense of no control over what happens to them coupled with bad outcomes in situations is associated with depression.
On the other hand, research has suggested that individuals with an internal locus of control are generally more adaptive and resilient, and are less likely to experience depression and other mental health problems.
Kelly mentions “personal constructs”, could you provide an example of Rep Grid ?
The aim of development for Kelly (1963) was for the individual to maximize their knowledge of the world. This was achieved via the development of their personal construct systems” - “Healthy development results in the individual developing an accurate system of personal constructs that allows them to view the world flexibly.”
Personal constructs is in essence the personality, it determines how you see the world and how you behave → the differences between people result from the different ways that we predict and interpret events in the world around us
Kelly is well-known for the role construct repertory test = the rep grid test. They are intended to give an insight into a client’s personal construct system.
“Patients are presented with a grid and are asked to list the important people in their lives by name. They then have to consider these people in sets of three. They put a circle under the three they are considering, and then in the ‘Constructs’ columns at the right of the grid, they write the way in which two are similar and the way in which the third person differs from the other two. They put an ‘x’ in the circle to show which two are similar. These two rows give the similarity and the contrast parts of the personal construct that we considered previously when we examined the corollaries of personal constructs
What assessment technique did Kelly use to describe Personality in the clinical setting? Describe the test and its limitations.
From the book: The assessment technique that Kelly is best known for is the role construct repertory test, more commonly known as the rep grid test. Kelly was above all else a practicing therapist, and he developed the rep grid test to help him assess clients in his clinical work. It can appear to be a complex system. Clients are presented with a grid and are asked to list the important people in their lives by name. They then have to consider these people in sets of three. They put a circle under the three they are considering, and then in the ‘Constructs’ columns at the right of the grid, they write the way in which two are similar and the way in which the third person diers from the other two. They put an ‘x’ in the circle to show which two are similar. These two rows give the similarity and the contrast parts of the personal construct that we considered previously when we examined the corollaries of personal constructs.
Limitations: There is no standard way to score rep grids. They are intended to give an insight into a client’s personal construct system. From examining the grid, the number of constructs used is apparent, and the nature of the constructs used is also of interest. Remember that clients will spontaneously generate the constructs to be used. They are simply asked to compare groups of three and identify how two are similar and the other dierent. If you have the same or very similar patterns for some constructs, it may be that you do not really differentiate between them, as with content/discontent and happy/sad in this example. For some people these distinctions will be meaningful, and here we have identified one source of individual differences in terms of how even labels may be interpreted.
What is Walter Mischel’s contribution to the person-situation debate?
Walter Mischel published Personality and Assessment (1968) = a book that created enormous controversy in personality psychology because he attacked the trait approach → question of the stability of personality traits across situations: do you behave as you do because of the situation you are in or because of your personality? ⇒ This became known as the person–situation debate, or the ‘personality paradox’.
Mischel held that ratings on traits fail to predict actual behavior. He pointed out that there was little evidence that individuals’ behavior is consistent in different situations.
Epstein argued in 1983 that Mischel’s analysis was flawed. Although traits may fail to predict single behaviors, traits are good at predicting aggregates of many behaviors. For example, someone who is conscientious will likely study for most exams. However, that person may not study for a particular exam because of an illness. Therefore, traits are not good at predicting single behaviors, but are good at predicting aggregates of behaviors.
“The grand explanatory theory of personality that Mischel envisages has not yet emerged, but considerable progress has been made in resolving the person-situation debate and in developing our understanding of how the two interact to produce both consistency and change in behavior”
Describe Rational and Irrational behavior based on the theory of REBT of Ellis by giving examples.
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) was created by Albert Ellis.
The fundamental assertion of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) is that the way people feel is largely influenced by how they think. When people hold irrational beliefs about themselves or the world, problems can result.
According to him REBT is an action-oriented therapy strategy that aims to promote emotional growth in people by instructing them to change their self-defeating (irrational) attitudes, feelings, and behaviors with new, more useful behavior.
He believes that, mostly, people begin by having a set of rational beliefs. If, throughout their lives, they stayed with these rational ideas, then they would have only appropriate, or emotionally stable, consequences. This would mean that, after an unhappy activating experience, an individual could rationalise about what happened and not see it as an indication of wider or more serious issues. Instead, they would gain the determination to avoid having these upsetting consequences by going back to the activating experience and trying again.
On the other hand, irrational beliefs are beliefs we have that negatively affect our lives. imagine that one of your friends passes you on the street without acknowledging you. Now, there may be a number of harmless reasons as to why this happened; it could be that your friend is preoccupied about something and didn’t even see you. However, you may just as easily believe that your friend ignored you, and from this you may infer that your friend doesn’t like you. From here it is a simple spiral downwards to believing that you are unacceptable as a friend and, therefore, must be worthless as a person. The consequences then lead to your emotional disturbance and, because of your belief that you are worthless, you may become withdrawn and depressed.
Overall, Ellis claimed that REBT strengthens people’s capacity to function productively and enjoy life because it educates people to take responsibility for their own emotions and gives them the power to modify and overcome destructive behaviors. This approach relies on the concept that how we respond emotionally to something depends simply on our own interpretations, attitude, beliefs or thoughts of that situation.
Describe with some examples the logic behind the lexical approach and/or the factor analysis, with reference to the making of a personality test.
The aim of lexical approaches is to find underlying dimensions to the many ways we describe our personality. The Lexical approaches investigate whether the five-factor structure is universally applicable as an emic approach to research. Basically, what the researchers do is to use the personality terms that are found in the native language of the country. They contrast this with what they call the etic approach which uses personality questionnaires translated from another language that in practice tends to be English.
Galton suggested that the most meaningful personality descriptors will tend to become encoded in language as single words and provides the first documented source of a dictionary describing personality. This approach has come to be known as the lexical hypothesis. The Lexical hypothesis suggests that it is the individual differences between people that are important- that become encoded as single terms. Two additional criteria are included in the lexical hypothesis.
First, frequency of use is also assumed to correspond with importance. It seems logical that the words we use most to describe personality will be labeling the aspects of personality that we think are most important.
Secondly, the number of words in a language that refer to each trait will be related to how important that trait is in describing human personality.
It states that, if individual differences between people are important, there will be words to describe them- the more frequently a personality descriptor is used, the more important the personality characteristic. Finally, the more synonyms of the word there are, the more important the difference. With the advent of factor analysis, these trait lists were statistically analyzed to try to discover an underlying structure to all attitudes and behavior.
The lexical approach to personality assessment is based on the idea that the most important personality traits can be inferred from the language people use to describe themselves and others. This approach involves compiling a list of words that are commonly used to describe personality, such as “outgoing,” “dependable,” “anxious,” etc., and then using these words to create a personality test.
Factor analysis is a statistical method that is often used in combination with the lexical approach to identify the underlying dimensions of personality. It involves analyzing the correlations between the words on the personality test to identify groups of words that tend to be used together. These groups of words are considered to represent different personality factors, such as extraversion or neuroticism.
For example, a personality test based on the lexical approach might include words such as “outgoing,” “talkative,” and “sociable” as indicators of extraversion, while words like “anxious,” “nervous,” and “worried” would be used to measure neuroticism. Factor analysis would then be used to identify the correlation between these words, and to determine that they are associated with the factors of extraversion and neuroticism.
BUT: This approach has some criticisms, such as the cultural bias and the lack of universally agreed on list of words to describe personality traits.
How many personality factors ? Why ? What should we call them ? (3?5?16?)
We could consider that there are 16 personality factors:
Cattell created a taxonomy of 16 different personality traits that could be used to describe and explain individual differences between people’s personalities E.g. apprehension (=worried vs confident), dominance (=forceful vs submissive), emotional stability (=calm vs high-strung) etc…)
He originally analyzed Allport’s list and whittled it down to 171 characteristics, then used a statistical technique known as factor analysis to identify traits that are related to one another → 16 factors
Cattell developed an assessment based on these 16 personality factors → The 16PF Personality Questionnaire, still frequently used today for career counseling, marital counseling, and in business for employee testing and selection. You are asked to rate each statement on a five-point scale from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” or from “very inaccurate” to “very accurate.”
Gigantic Three by Eysenck: individual differences in personality explained in biological terms.
Different levels of Neuroticism, Extraversion, & Psychoticism = genetic factors… explain why personality remains largely unchanged across the lifespan.
Neuroticism (emotionality and tendency to worry)
Extraversion (outgoing & energetic)
Psychocitism (creative, cold)
Or consider that there are 5 personality factors:
There is a growing consensus that 5 supertraits make up the basic structure of personality. While there are arguments about the names accorded to these factors, those chosen by Costa and McCrae are the most popular. The Big Five factors are Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism (OCEAN).
There is increasing agreement that there are five factors, but there is still some level of disagreement about the exact nature of each of the five factors. Debate continues about how the factors should be labeled.
Like Cattell’s 16PF, the Big Five originated from the lexical hypothesis → the assumption that the major dimensions of individual differences can be derived from the total number of descriptors.
What are the main advantages and disadvantages of the five traits approach?
Advantage Consensus about the 5 elements
Compatible with Catell’s 16PF and Eysenk’s gigantic Three
The 5 traits are universal
across space-culture
across time-lifespan
They would emerge spontaneously from data structure,
Disadvantages When Neuroticism is reversed and scored in terms of Emotional Stability several studies reported all five traits to be positively and significantly intercorrelated. These (modest) intercorrelations may suggest that personality could be further simplified to more “basic” underlying traits, perhaps even one general factor (Stability: –N+C+A VS. Plasticity: +E+O)
Data-driven: no theory behind
Low predictive value
Researcher-specific factors ? How many ? How do we label them ?
Factor analysis critics: Somehow arbitrary not only the number of factors, but also their labeling - Some claim Openness should be rather called Creativity
Others maintain the possibility to add one or more dimension(s): honesty-humility” (see later, but also: “religiosity”, “attractiveness”, “sexuality” - Also “conservative” “frugal” “manipulative” “masculine” “snobbish” “amusing” “risk-taking”
What is HEXACO ? Discuss its potential evolutionary value.
HEXACO is a personality model that identifies six personality dimensions that are thought to be important in predicting an individual’s behavior and personality: Honesty-Humility, Emotionality, eXtraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience. These dimensions are thought to be stable over time and across different cultures.
There is some evidence to suggest that HEXACO may have an evolutionary basis. For example, research has found that Honesty-Humility is positively related to prosocial behavior, which may have helped individuals to build and maintain cooperative relationships in small, interdependent societies. Similarly, Agreeableness is positively related to altruistic behavior, which may have helped individuals to contribute to the well-being of their group. Conscientiousness may also have had evolutionary value, as it is associated with goal-directed behavior and the ability to plan and delay gratification, which may have helped individuals to achieve long-term goals and to survive in challenging environments.
Overall, HEXACO provides a useful framework for understanding and predicting individual differences in personality, and may have some basis in evolutionary theory
What is the Dark Triad? How does it appear in romantic relationships?
The Dark triad is a personality theory which is represented by three tardis: narcissism, machiavellianism and psychopathy.
Narcissism is demonstrated by feelings, thoughts and behaviors that represent vanity, egotistic admiration of oneself, self-love, and grandiosity (unrealistic sense of one’s own superiority).
Machiavellianism, named after the philosophy of Niccolò Machiavelli, is shown by feelings, thoughts and behaviors that are cynical, seek to manipulate and exploit other people, focussed on self-interest and deceiving others, often without any regard for morality.
Psychopathy is evidenced by feelings, thoughts and behaviors that reflect general anti-social behavior, selfishness, cruelty and heartlessness to others and a lack of sense of remorse or guilt over things.
In romantic relationships this traits can be used as part of scam as in the example of doctor “Paolo Macchiarini” who stole the money of woman by by pretending to be romantically interest in them and asking for loads which he never paid, his lack of empathy for achieving his goals is a clear sign of Machiavellian thought of manipulation focused on his self interest.
What are some outcomes/constructs that correlate with each of the Big 5 traits?
Extraversion= reduced cooperation, seeking success.
Agreeableness= relationship satisfaction, low tendency for antisocial behaviors. However it can create a problem during adolescence, it only results in group inclusion when extraversion is present.
Conscientiousness= academic success, also better health and lifestyle. Instead, low conscientiousness can predict adolescence conflicts, substance abuse, criminal acts and suicide attempts.
Personality and educational performance (extraversion)
Openness =daydreaming, desire for a life out of the standard, and there is a reduced tendency to stigmatize others. With age this trait is more resilient.
Neuroticism (bad one of the five) - it can affect your health by smoking, work problems, increased chance of PTSD after shock, lower work performance, negative for romantic relations.
What approach does Eysenck’s theory follow? Focusing on the concepts of over-under stimulation explain extraversion and introversion in terms of his approach with the help of experiments he carried out.
The Gigantic Three:
Central element: individual differences in personality explained in biological terms.
Different levels of Neuroticism, Extraversion, & Psychoticism = genetic factors… explain why personality remains largely unchanged across the lifespan.
Eysenck postulated that there exist two sets of neuronal mechanisms in the brain, the excitatory and inhibitory ones. Which are balanced by the ascending reticular activation system. Which have two subdivisions the reticulo-cortical and the reticulo-limbic system. The reticulo-cortical manages the arousal of the incoming stimuli and the reticulo-limbic manages and controls to emotional stimuli.
high arousal in the reticulo-cortical makes a person become introverted, since all the stimuli it perceives in higher sense and having a low arousal in the reticulo-cortical makes people more extroverted. For Eysenck, extraverts need more stimulation than introverts bc they have very low arousal → in that way, they need to take the stimulation from outside. The introvert’s brain already provides what they need → Eysenck’s biological model of personality
He made a series of experiments which by means of measuring the salivary response to a lemon, postulating that the introverts will salivate more since they have a high arousal to stimulus, will distinguish between introverts and extroverts. Which was identified by a self questionnaire in the first part of the experiment.
What are the behavioral activation system (BAS) and the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) personality characteristics? Make an example of how they correlate to a specific behavior.
The behavioral activation system (BAS) is a psychological construct that refers to an individual’s tendency to approach and engage with rewarding stimuli in their environment. People with a high BAS tend to be highly motivated, energetic, and prone to seeking out new experiences and challenges. They may also be more sensitive to positive stimuli, such as social approval or praise.
The behavioral inhibition system (BIS) is a psychological construct that refers to an individual’s tendency to avoid and withdraw from potentially aversive or punishing stimuli in their environment. People with a high BIS tend to be more anxious, fearful, and prone to avoiding risky or unfamiliar situations. They may also be more sensitive to negative stimuli, such as threats or punishment.
BAS and BIS are not mutually exclusive and can vary independently of each other.
Here is an example of how BAS and BIS might be related to specific behavior:
A person with a high BAS and low BIS might be more likely to pursue new opportunities, such as starting a business or taking up a new hobby, because they are motivated by the potential rewards and are not overly concerned about the potential risks or challenges.
A person with a low BAS and high BIS might be more hesitant to take on new challenges or to try new things, because they are less motivated by potential rewards and are more concerned about the potential risks or consequences.
How evolutionary psychology explains altruism
Evolutionary psychologists have proposed several possible explanations for the evolution of altruism:
Kin selection: This theory suggests that altruistic behavior towards close relatives (such as siblings or cousins) may have evolved because it increases the chances of passing on one’s genes to future generations. By helping a close relative, an individual is indirectly helping to preserve their own genetic legacy.
Reciprocal altruism: This theory suggests that altruistic behavior may have evolved as a way of building trust and cooperation with others. If an individual helps someone else, that person may be more likely to return the favor in the future, which could benefit both parties.
Group selection: This theory suggests that altruistic behavior may have evolved at the group level, rather than the individual level. Groups with more altruistic members may be more successful at competing with other groups, as they are able to coordinate their efforts and pool their resources more effectively.
Overall, evolutionary psychology offers several possible explanations for the evolution of altruism, each of which highlights the role of social and ecological factors in shaping human behavior.
Impact on biology on personality
Studies that are used to study the impact of biology on personality are correlations between adopted children and their biological and adoptive parents.
Considerations within behavioural genetics and personality
Conceptions of heritability and the environment (abstract or population concepts)
Different types of genetic variance (additive, dominant, epistatic)
Shared versus non-shared environmental influences
The representativeness of twin and adoption studies
Assortative mating
The changing world of genetics.
Ways in studying biology in personality
Studies that are used to study the impact of biology on personality are correlations between adopted children and their biological and adoptive parents.
Considerations within behavioural genetics and personality
Conceptions of heritability and the environment (abstract or population concepts)
Different types of genetic variance (additive, dominant, epistatic)
Shared versus non-shared environmental influences
The representativeness of twin and adoption studies
Assortative mating
The changing world of genetics.
