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FB 1 (my cards) > Physiology-Midterm > Flashcards

Physiology-Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

Physiology

A

Study of function of the body

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2
Q

Set point

A

Normal level that is supposed to be in the body

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3
Q

Sensor

A

Detects if there is a change or not

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4
Q

Afferent pathway

A

Pathway from the sensor to the integrating center

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5
Q

Integrating center

A

Decides how to respond to change

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6
Q

Efferent pathway

A

Pathway from the integrating center to the effectors

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7
Q

Effectors

A

Does the change that the integrating center told

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8
Q

Homeostasis

A

Maintains constancy in the body

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9
Q

Negative feedback

A

Something has changed and want to bring it back to normal. Follows homeostasis

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10
Q

Positive feedback

A

A change has happened and the change is going to continue. Doesn’t follow homeostasis and if doesn’t stop, can lead to detrimental effects. Stops through negative feedback or termination

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11
Q

Neural communication

A

Fast, localized, and between neurons and neurons or neurons to cells. Have neurotransmitters

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12
Q

Chemical communication

A

Slow and not localized. Chemicals include hormones, messengers, and modulators. Hormones can either be a neurocrine or endocrine

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13
Q

Paracrine

A

Cell secretes a chemical that influences other cells around it

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14
Q

Autocrine

A

Cell secretes a chemical that acts on itself

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15
Q

Intracellular fluid

A

Makes up 40% of total body weight. All cells are put into one group because of their similar plasma compositions

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16
Q

Extracellular fluid

A

Makes up 20% of total body weight. Divided into interstitial, plasma, and transcellular fluid

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17
Q

Transcellular fluid

A

Found in the synovial joins, cerebrospinal fluid, inocular regions of the eye, peritoneal, and pericardial

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18
Q

Interstitial fluid

A

Fluid surrounding the cell

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19
Q

Plasma

A

Fluid portion of blood

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20
Q

Capillary wall

A

Divides the interstitial and plasma

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21
Q

Donnan effect

A

Proteins (negative charged) in the plasma attracts positive ions from the interstitial fluid, making the concentration of positive ions slightly higher in the plasma

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22
Q

Osmolarity

A

Molarity x #of particles

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23
Q

Molarity

A

Moles/L of solution

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24
Q

Osmosis

A

Diffusing of water through a semipermeable membrane

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25
Q

Osmotic pressure

A

Pressure needed to force water to stay in its place when there is a concentration difference

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26
Q

Van’t Hoff’s equation

A

Pi= CRT

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27
Q

According to Van’t Hoff, 1 mOsm/L exerts a pressure of…

A

19.3 mmHg

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28
Q

Non-carrier mediated transport

A

No use of carrier proteins

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29
Q

Carrier-mediated transport

A

Use of carrier proteins

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30
Q

Simple diffusion

A

Diffusion across the cell membrane

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31
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Transport with the help of carrier proteins. Has specificity, competition, and saturation

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32
Q

Active transport

A

Moving against the concentration gradient so needs energy to do it

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33
Q

Primary active transport

A

ATP binding site on the protein as well as binding site of the molecules to be transported.
Example: Na/K pump, H+ pump, Ca

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34
Q

Secondary active transport

A

Using concentration gradient different established in primary transport, molecule will diffuse into the cell and this energy will help another molecule to move against its concentration gradient
Example: glucose moving in with the help of sodium

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35
Q

Tertiary active transport

A

Molecule moves against its concentration gradient based on concentration difference established in secondary active transport
Example: peptides transporting due to concentration gradient of H which was helped by Na/K pump

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36
Q

Capillary pressure

A

Goes out of the plasma into the interstitial fluid

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37
Q

Interstitial fluid pressure

A

If positive, goes towards plasma and if negative, goes towards interstitial fluid

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38
Q

Plasma colloid osmotic pressure

A

Goes inside the plasma. This pressure is greater than the interstitial fluid colloid osmotic pressure

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39
Q

Interstitial fluid colloid osmotic pressure

A

Goes into the interstitial fluid

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40
Q

Lymphatic system

A

Extra fluid that is filtered into the interstitial fluid is returned to the circulation by the lymphatic

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41
Q

Intracellular edema

A

Rare. Caused by depletion of nutrients and depression of the metabolic system

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42
Q

Extracellular edema

A

Common. Caused by abnormal leakage of fluid from plasma and failure of lymphatic to return extra fluid to circulation

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43
Q

Leakage of fluid into interstitial

A
  • Leaky capillary
  • Low plasma colloid osmotic pressure
  • Increase in capillary pressure
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44
Q

Failure of lymphatics

A
  • High ISF proteins cause increase interstitial colloid osmotic pressure
  • Blocking of the lymphatic system
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45
Q

Protection against edema

A
  • Lymphatics ability to increase 10-50 times
  • Low compliance of interstitum
  • Removal of ISFs from interstitial and go to lymphatics
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46
Q

Vesicular transport

A
  • Rough ER synthesizes proteins that goes to the Golgi
  • Smooth ER synthesizes lipids
  • Golgi modifies by adding polysaccharides to make the protein active, and sorts and packages them in vesicles
  • Proteins are exocytosed out of the cell
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47
Q

Exocytosis mechanism

A
  • Nucleation:V-SNAP on vesicle attached to SNAP25 and t-snare and forms a loose complex
  • Zippering: V-SNARE brings the vehicle closer to it
  • Fusion pore opening: with influx of Ca, vehicle leaves the cell
  • Regeneration: NSF and SNAPs dissolve the tight complex by hydrolation of ATP
  • Budding: vesicle can now be used for endocytosis
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48
Q

Endocytosis mechanism

A
  • Clathrin in membrane brings the material in forming a coated pit
  • Actin and myosin constrict the neck
  • Dynamin cuts it off and can now go inside the cell
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49
Q

Transcytosis

A

Movement between cell layers. Cell just needs to move it from one place to the other

Ex: IgG antibodies in mother, milk in mammary glands

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50
Q

Clathrin

A

Used for endocytosis and exocytsois of protein from Golgi to plamsa membrane

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51
Q

COPI

A

Reterograde protein. Moves between retrograde stacks of the Golgi. Moves from the Golgi to the ER

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52
Q

COPII

A

Anteroretrograde. Moves from ER to Golgi

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53
Q

Signal peptidase

A

Makes sure that the N terminus part goes through the lumen first

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54
Q

Translocans

A

Makes sure hydrophobic part stays in the channel and is in the correct orientation

55
Q

Ion channels

A

Help in transporting charges and polar molecules across the hydrophobic cell membrane. Have a selectivity filter within their pore that helps to select the correct ion to go through.

Transport through their electrochemical potential

56
Q

Structure of ion channels

A

Mace of alpha subunits that come together to form alpha helical polypeptide segments.

4 different structures:

  • Homo-oligomers
  • Hetero-oligomers
  • Motifs
  • Subunit + auxiliary subunit (beta or gamma subunit)
57
Q

Selectivity of ion channels

A
  • Size

- Nature of amino acid lining it (this is mostly used since some molecules are very similar to each other in size)

58
Q

Leak channels

A

Non-gated channels that are open all the time. This determines the permeability of a molecule to the membrane

59
Q

Gated channels

A

Channels that open due to a stimulus.

3 types:

  • Voltage
  • Ligand
  • Mechanical
60
Q

Voltage gated channels

A

Open due to change in voltage difference in a cell.

At rest, the inactivation is open while the activation gate is closed. When there is a change in voltage, positive amino acids that were close to the inner part of the cell move out and the activation gate will be open. When membrane voltage changes, it will go back to rest.

However, if the activation gate stays open for a very long time, the inactivation gate will close (refractory). Inactivation gate can only open when the membrane is back to res5

61
Q

Lidocaine or bupivacaine

A

Anesthetic that when administered will block sodium voltage gated channels which doesn’t allow an action potential to conduct

62
Q

TTX

A

Poison found in fish and is also an inhibitor of sodium voltage gated channels

63
Q

Ligand-gated channels

A

Channels open when a ligand attaches

Occupied receptor= open channel
Free receptor= closed channel

64
Q

Extracellular ligand

A

Neurotransmitters, hormones

65
Q

Intracellular ligand

A

cAMP, ATP

66
Q

Nictotinic receptor

A

Open in response to nicotine and acetylcholine. Found in skeletal muscles Will allow sodium to entertain the cell leading to contractions

67
Q

Curare

A

Will inhibit the nicotinic receptor so that there are no muscular contractions

68
Q

Muscarinic receptor

A

Muscarine and acetylcholine can open this channel. Found in heart muscles. Slows heart rate through an influx of potassium ions

69
Q

Atropine+ insecticides

A

Block the muscadine channels leading to an increased heart rate

70
Q

Mechanically-gated channels

A

Opens due to stretching, pressure, and touch

Ex: muscles, pressing on skin, hair cells of cochlea

71
Q

Channelopathies

A

Problems in the channels. Can be due to inherited factors, trauma, or problems in translation/transcription (mutations)

72
Q

Enhanced activation of sodium 17 channels

A

Is autosomal dominant and leads to painful hands and feet (erythromaligia)

73
Q

Incomplete inaction of sodium 17 channels

A

Autosomal dominant and leads to paroxysmal pain disorder. Leads to ocular, mandibular, and rectal pain

74
Q

Non-functional sodium 17 channels

A

Autosomal recessive. Feel no pain

75
Q

Membrane potential

A

Voltage difference across the cell membrane. More sodium, chlorine, and calcium outside. More potassium inside

Depends on 2 things:

  • Concentration of ion
  • Permability of ion
76
Q

Sodium potassium pump

A

Takes out three sodium and puts two potassium in. So net is losing one positive charge (making membrane more negative)

This is an electrogenic

77
Q

Resting membrane potential

A

Membrane potential when the cell is at rest.

Positive charges on the outside will attract the negative charges in the inside forming a thin line of positive and negative charges respectively. Res5 of the positives and negatives will bind to each other neutralizing it

78
Q

Equilibrium potential

A

When the concentration gradient and the electrical gradient is both at equilibrium

79
Q

Potassium equilibrium potential

A
  • Pottasium conc will want to come out of the cell
  • Potassium electrical diff will want to come in the cell

Both will continue moving back and forth until equilibrium is established

80
Q

Sodium equilibrium potential

A
  • Sodium conc will want to go in the cell
  • Sodium electrical will also want to go in the cell

Leads to a lot of positive charge accumulation so some sodium will leave the cell resulting in equilibrium

81
Q

Permeability

A

Increase permeability if there are more leak channels of that ion.

Plasma membrane is more permeable to potassium than sodium

82
Q

Non-excitable cells

A

RMP doesn’t change over time.

Ex: epithelial cells and adipose cells

83
Q

Excitable cells

A

RMP can change due to a stimulus

Ex: muscle and nervous cells

84
Q

Depolarization

A

Decrease in membrane potential. Cell is becoming more positive

85
Q

Repolarization

A

Going back to RMP. Cell is becoming more negative

86
Q

Hyperpolarization

A

Cell is below RMP so very negative

87
Q

Graded potential

A

Changes in membrane potential that occur due to a stimulus

Vary depending on the strength and duration

Strength of stimulus grows weaker from the point of origin

88
Q

Action potential

A

Fast changes in membrane potential

  • Stimulus opens up sodium channels that allow it to enter the cell
  • When it reaches threshold potential, sodium voltage gated channels open and allow rapid depolarization
  • Sodium channels will close and potassium channels will open.
  • Pottasium will enter the cell leading to repolarization
  • Will close once hyperpolarization is reached
89
Q

Properties of action potentials

A
  • All or none
  • Refractory period since sodium channel inactivation gate is closed. Have absolute refractory (can’t fire another action potential at all) and relative refractory (can fire another one if there’s a very strong stimulus)
90
Q

Stimulus intensity coding

A

Higher strength of stimuli will cause a higher frequency of action potentials

91
Q

Wave effect of conducting a nerve impulse

A

When one sodium-voltage gated channels opens, it opens the next one. By the time the next one opens, the original one is going back to repolarization and the cycle continues

92
Q

Myelin-forming cells

A

Have myelin today insulate the cell and allow the response to go very fast. Myelin doesn’t allow sodium or pottasium to move. In between myelin, have nodes of Ranvier to allow potassium and sodium to move in and out of the cell

Two types:

  • Oligodendrocytes
  • Schwann cells
93
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

Small cells with few processes. Provide myelin to white matter of brain. Can wrap processes around axons

94
Q

Schwann cells

A

Provide myelin for peripheral nervous system. Along the lengths of an a on

95
Q

Saltatory conduction

A

AP along a myelin sheath

96
Q

Multiple sclerosis

A

Condition in which the myelin sheath is damaged so have slow response

97
Q

AP types

A
  • Typical spike
  • Plathea
  • Rhythmic
98
Q

Typical spike

A

Normal AP

Ex: motor neurons, skeletal muscle

99
Q

AP with plateau

A
  • Phase 0: depolarization through sodium voltage gated channels
  • Phase 1: inactivation of sodium channels and activating pottasium channels
  • Phase 2: calcium begins entering the cell but it does it really slowly. With calcium going in and potassium going out, leads to plateau phase
  • Phase 3: calcium channels close and goes to normal repolarization

Ex: cardiac myocytes and smooth muscle

100
Q

Rhthmic AP

A

In cells that are spontaneously active

Need 3 things for rhythmic AP:

  • Permrability to sodium and in some cases calcium
  • RMP is not maintained so less negative than normal
  • Small hyperpolarization allows for re-excitation
101
Q

Rhythmic AP in cardiac SA

A

At the end of an AP, have pacemaker potential which activates HCN channels (respond to hyperpolarization)
Allows cations to enter to enter but depolarization is through Ca. Repolarization is still through potassium

102
Q

Thalami pacemaker potential

A

Depolarization through HCN with Ca coming in

Strong depolarization causes HCN channels to close leading calcium to not enter the cell leading to repolarization

Hyperpolarization will enter the next HCN channel

103
Q

GI smooth muscle

A

Has rhythmic and repetitive

Repetitive due to electrical waves in intestinal walls

Don’t have HCN channels

104
Q

Electrical synapse

A

Very fast. Involves the use of gap junctions which allow ions to move from one place to the other very fast.

Direct communication between the cytoplasms

Each gap junctions is made of 6 connexin proteins that make up one connexon

105
Q

Chemical synapse

A

Involves the use of chemicals in vesicles and the influx of calcium. Slower than electrical synapse. The cytoplasms are farther away than in the electrical one.

Depolarization from the action potential allows calcium to enter the cell and it binds to its protein that allows the neurotransmitter to be exocytosed out of the cell

106
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

Chemical that is released at the presynaptic terminal.

To be a neurotransmitter:

  • Synthesized within the presynaptic membrane or be present in the cell
  • Lead to a response in the postsynaptic membrane and the response is the same every time
  • Have some sort of termination of the neurotransmitter
107
Q

Postsynaptic receptors

A

Two types:

  • Ionotrooic (ligand-gated ions channels)
  • Metabatropic
108
Q

Ionotropic receptors

A

Very fast. Binding of neurotransmitter allows ions to pass through

3 types of receptors

  • Pentametic
  • Glutamate
  • ATP
109
Q

Pentametic receptors

A

Composed of 5 subunits around a central channel.

Contains ACh, GABA, and glycine

110
Q

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors

A

Ionotropic receptors that allow sodium to enter the cell leading to excitatory postsynaptic potential. 2 acetylcholine molecules open up the channel

111
Q

Type A gamma aminobutryic acid receptors (GABA A, Rs)

A

Ionotropic receptor. GABA binds to receptors and allows chlorine to enter leading to an inhibitory postsynaptic potential

112
Q

Glycine receptors

A

Ionotropic receptors. Allows chlorine to entered leading to an IPSP

113
Q

Metabotric receptors

A

Slow transmission. Linked to a G-protein. When the ligand binds, the alpha subunit of the G protein dissociates from the beta-gamma. Either the alpha portion will open up a channel or the beta-gamma

114
Q

Muscarinic ACh receptors

A

Metabotropic receptors. When acetylcholine binds, beta-gamma complex binds to potassium channels and opens it.

Potassium leaves the cell leading to a slowed heart rate

115
Q

GABA b receptor

A

Metabotropic receptor. Opens pottasium channels that leave and cause IPSP

116
Q

EPSP

A

When the membrane become closer to depolarization. So when sodium and calcium ions come into the cell

If it hits threshold potential, it can lead to an action potential

117
Q

IPSP

A

When the membrane potential gets farther away from the threshold potential. So when chlorine enters the cell or potassium leaves the cell

118
Q

Spatial summation

A

Adding all the IPSPs and EPSPs at all synapses

119
Q

Temporal summation

A

Adding all the IPSPs and EPSPs at only one synapse

120
Q

Termination of neurotransmitter

A
  • Enzymatic degradation
  • Reuptake
  • Diffusion
121
Q

Termination of acetylcholine

A

Enzymes degrade it and choline is taken back to the presynaptic membrane to form acetylcholine again

122
Q

Termination of glutamate

A

Taken up by specialized membrane transport proteins

123
Q

Gap junctions

A

Most simple form of communication. Ions pass between them. Allows for the cells to work as one uniform unit. Made up of connexons

Ex:heart muscle, smooth muscle, lung, liver, neurons

124
Q

Contact-dependent signaling (CAMs)

A

Known as juxtacrine signaling. Have cell adhesion molecules on the surface for a ligand to bind to it

Different types:

  • Nerve cell adhesion molecules
  • Integrins
  • Selectins
  • Cadherins
125
Q

Nerve-cell adhesion molecules

A

Help in nerve cell growth when the nervous system is developing

126
Q

Integrins

A

Cell signaling found in cell-matrix junctions

127
Q

Cadherins

A

Used in adhesion molecules (desmosomes)

128
Q

Selectins

A

Temporary cell-cell adhesion during inflammation

129
Q

Intracrine

A

Molecule synthesizes within the cell and acts within the cell

Ex: angiogenesis II in neurons

130
Q

Paracrine

A

Cell secretes a molecule and goes to another cell through diffusion or through local circulation

Ex: histamine, NO

131
Q

Autocrine

A

Cell makes a molecule that acts on itself

Ex:growth factors

132
Q

Neurocrine

A

Neurotransmitters are secreted by a neuron and goes to another cell by diffusion or by the local circulation

Ex: hormones of the hypothalamus and pituitary

133
Q

Endocrine

A

Hormones secreted by glands or cells and go to cells through the general circulation

134
Q

Neuroendocrine

A

Secrete neurohormoes that go to cells by the general circulation

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