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FB 1 (my cards) > Anatomy-Midterm > Flashcards

Anatomy-Midterm Flashcards

1
Q

Gross anatomy

A

Studying the internal organs

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2
Q

Surface anatomy

A

Studying the surface

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3
Q

Developmental anatomy (embryology)

A

Studying prenatal development. Also studying congenital anomalies

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4
Q

Microscopic anatomy

A

Studying structures at the microscopic level. Two types:

1) Histology: studying tissue
2) Cytology: studying cells

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5
Q

Radiological anatomy

A

Studying structures with the help of x-rays, CT scans, MRI, and other medical imaging techniques

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6
Q

Surgical anatomy

A

Helps surgeons in making correct incisions

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7
Q

Supine position

A

Laying on your back, facing up

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8
Q

Prone position

A

Laying on your stomach, facing down

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9
Q

Lithotomy poistion

A

Birth position or disability

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10
Q

Median plane (median saggital plane)

A

Cuts through the middle of the body and divides it into left and right halves

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11
Q

Saggital planes

A

Planes parallel to the median plane

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12
Q

Horizontal (axial or transverse) plane

A

Planes going horizontally

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13
Q

Coronal plane

A

Perpendicular to the median plane and divides the body into anterior and posterior

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14
Q

Oblique planes

A

Irregular planes

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15
Q

Superior (cranial)

A

Closer to the head

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16
Q

Inferior (caudal)

A

Closer to the feet

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17
Q

Anterior (ventral)

A

Closer to the front

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18
Q

Posterior (dorsal)

A

Closer to the back

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19
Q

Medial

A

Closer to the median plane

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20
Q

Lateral

A

Farther from the median plane

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21
Q

Proximal

A

Closer to the trunk/point of origin

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22
Q

Distal

A

Farther from the trunk/point of origin

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23
Q

Exterior

A

Outside

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24
Q

Interior

A

Inside

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25
Q

Superficial

A

Nearer to the surface

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26
Q

Deep

A

Farther from the surface

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27
Q

Central

A

Closer to the center (for spherical structures)

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28
Q

Peripheral

A

Farther from the center (for spherical structures)

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29
Q

Ipsilateral

A

Same side

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30
Q

Contralateral

A

Different sides

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31
Q

Parietal

A

Outside covering of a body covering

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32
Q

Visceral

A

Inside covering of a body cavity

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33
Q

Evagination

A

Outward bulging of a body of a wall

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34
Q

Invagination

A

Inward bulging of a body of a wall

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35
Q

Flexion

A

Bending to decrease the angle

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36
Q

Extension

A

Extending to increase the angle

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37
Q

Abduction

A

Moving away from the median plane

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38
Q

Adduction

A

Moving towards the median plane

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39
Q

Rotation

A

Rotating across the longitudinal axis

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40
Q

Medial rotation

A

Rotating inwards

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41
Q

Lateral rotation

A

Rotating outward

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42
Q

Circumduction

A

Circular movement combining abduction, adduction, flexion, and extension

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43
Q

Eversion

A

Raising the lateral border of the foot

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44
Q

Inversion

A

Rotating the medial part of the foot

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45
Q

Pronation

A

Rotating your forearm so that your plan is facing down

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46
Q

Supination

A

Rotating your forearm so that your palm is facing up

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47
Q

Protrusion

A

Moving anteriorly

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48
Q

Retraction

A

Moving posteriorly

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49
Q

Origin

A

End of a muscle that is fixed and shows less movement

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50
Q

Insertion

A

End of a muscle that is fixed and shows more movement

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51
Q

Belly

A

Fleshy, contractile portion

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52
Q

Tendon

A

Fibrous, non-contractile part of muscle

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53
Q

Aponeurosis

A

Connective tissue that connects bone to skin/muscle

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54
Q

Raphe

A

Fibrous brand mad of aponeurosis

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55
Q

Arteries

A

Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart

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56
Q

Vessels

A

Carry deoxygenated blood to the heart

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57
Q

Arterioles

A

Small arteries that branch out

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58
Q

Venules

A

Small veins that branch out

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59
Q

Capillaries

A

Connect arterioles and venules

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60
Q

Primordial germ cells

A

Primitive gametes; derived from the epiblast in the second week of development and move into the wall of the yolk sac

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61
Q

Spermatogonium/oogonium

A

Mitotically active cells

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62
Q

Primary spermatocyte/oocyte

A

Prepares to go take meiosis

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63
Q

Secondary spermatocyte/oocyte

A

Completed meiosis I and goes into meiosis II

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64
Q

Spermatid/egg

A

Completes meiosis II

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65
Q

Sertoli cells

A

Large pale cells surrounding the sperm. Derived from the epithelium of the gland. Acts under FSH and like female granulosa cells

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66
Q

Leydig cells

A

Outside the seminiferous tubules. Produces testosterone to help in sperm post-development. Acts under LH. Like female thecal cells

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67
Q

Myoid cells

A

Outside the seminiferous tubules. Helps in pushing the sperm out

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68
Q

Acrosomes

A

Vesicle containing hydrolytic enzymes

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69
Q

Middle piece

A

Contains mitochondria to help the sperm move

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70
Q

Neck

A

Contains centrioles forming microtubules

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71
Q

Principal piece

A

Longest piece of the tail

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72
Q

End piece

A

Terminal end of the term

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73
Q

Aneuploidy

A

Any derivation from 46 chromosomes

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74
Q

Aneuploidy of genome

A

Attaining a set of 23 chromosome (triploidy, tetraploidy)

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75
Q

Aneuploidy of a chromosome

A

Gaining one or losing one chromosome. Two types:

1) Hypodiploid: 45 chromosomes
2) Hyperdiploid: 47 chromosomes

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76
Q

Cri-du-chat syndrome

A

Loss of 5p arm

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77
Q

Turner syndrome

A

XO in females. Females are infertile, have a short neck, and height

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78
Q

Trisomy 21 (Down’s syndrome)

A

Gain extra chromosome 21. Leads to mental retardation, flat face, short neck

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79
Q

Klinefelter syndrome

A

XXY or XXXY in males. They are infertile, have testicular atrophy, and have breasts

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80
Q

Follicular cells

A

Become granulosa cells and surround the ovum

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81
Q

Stromal cells

A

Become thecal cells

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82
Q

Primordial follicle

A

Ovum surrounded by follicular cells and outside of the ovum, there are stromal cells

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83
Q

Early primary follicle

A

Follicular cells become cuboidal but are still unilaminar. Zone pellucida begins to appear

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84
Q

Late primary follicle

A

Follicular cells become multilaminar. Zona pellucida forms. Stromal cells differentiate into theca interna and theca externa

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85
Q

Secondary/antral follicle

A

Ovum gets bigger due to division of granulosa cells. Cavities begin to appear called antrum. Corona radiate and cumulus oopholus begin to form

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86
Q

Graafian follicle

A

Mature follicle that has everything

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87
Q

Corpus leuteum

A

When ovulation occurs (ovum and granulosa cells leave ovary), some granulosa cells and theca interns form a yellow structure which secretes progesterone under the influence of LH to prepare the endometrium for implantation

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88
Q

Corpus albicans

A

If fertilization doesn’t occur, corpus leuteum degrades to become corpus albicans

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89
Q

For fertilization, need intercourse…

A

1) 3 days before ovulation

2) 24 hours after ovulation

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90
Q

Sperm viability in female tract

A

24-72 hours

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91
Q

Egg viability

A

12-24 hours

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92
Q

Capacitation

A

Sperm maturation in the Fallopian tubes. Interactions between the epithelial of the Fallopian tube and sperm. Removes proteins and seminal plasma proteins acquired through epididymal and ejaculatory phases. This is to expose molecules that will help in egg penetration

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93
Q

Beta proteins

A

Find and bind to receptors on the egg membrane

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94
Q

Alpha proteins

A

Tells beta proteins to go

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95
Q

Fast stop to polyspermy

A

When the sperm and egg membranes fuse, causes depolarization of the membrane which stops any other sperm from binding to egg receptors. Also, sodium ions enter the cell

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96
Q

Slow stop to polyspermy

A

When the membranes fuse, calcium ions leave the egg,s cytoplasm, causing cortical granules to fuse with the eggs membrane and empty contents that destroy the eggs sperm receptors

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97
Q

Acrosomal process

A

Actin filaments elongate to start making their way to the eggs receptors

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98
Q

Acrosomal reaction

A

Occurs after the hydrolytic enzymes penetrate the zona pellucida

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99
Q

Pronuclei

A

When egg and sperm nuclei are swollen and come closer to each other

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100
Q

Blastomeres

A

First cleavage (2 cells)

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101
Q

Morula

A

16 cell stage (72 hours old)

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102
Q

Blastocyst

A

Hollow filled with embryoblast and trophoblast

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103
Q

Trophoblast

A

Makes the placenta and chorion. Differentiates into:

1) Syncytiotrophoblast: membranes are fused together; outer layer
2) Cytotrophoblast: inner layer; membranes aren’t fused together

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104
Q

Placenta

A

Comes in the third month and starts secreting estrogen and progesterone

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105
Q

hCG

A

Secreted by the trophoblasts to tell the corpus leuteum to continue secreting estrogen and progesterone

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106
Q

Most common ectopic pregnancy…

A

In fallopian tubes

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107
Q

Epithileoid tissue

A

Has no apical surface. Found in the interstitial fluid of Leydig cells and leutin cells of the ovary

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108
Q

Endothelial

A

Lines the blood vessels and the lymphatic vessels

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109
Q

Endocardium

A

Lines the ventricles and the atrium

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110
Q

Myothelium

A

Lines the walls and covers the outer surfaces of the closed body cavities (pericardial, peritoneum, pleural)

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111
Q

Simple squamous cells

A

Height is less than the width. Nucleus is flat.

Found in the alveoli of the lungs, loop of Henle, Bowman’s capsule, endothelium, and myothelium

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112
Q

Simple cuboidal cells

A

Height and width are the same. Nucleus is located in the middle.

Found in the surface of the ovary, thyroid follicles, and ducts of glands

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113
Q

Simple columnar cells

A

Height is greater than the width. Nucleus is elongated and closer to the bottom. Cells are either pyramidal or low columnar.

Found in the bronchules, uterine tubes, and ductules of the testes

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114
Q

Non-ciliated columnar cells

A

Found in the GI tract (from the stomach to the rectum) and gallbladder

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115
Q

Pseudo-stratified non-ciliated cells

A

Found in the auditory tube, vas deferens, and male urethra

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116
Q

Pseudo-stratified ciliated cells

A

Found in the upper respiratory tract (trachea and large bronchi)

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117
Q

Stratified squamous non-keratinized

A

Basal layer is low cuboidal or columnar. Superficial layer is squamous.

Found in the lining of the mouth, esophagus, vagina, cornea, anal canal

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118
Q

Stratified squamous keratinized

A

Superficial layer has non-living cells that have keratin in their cytoplasm. Tough and water resistant.

Found in the skin

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119
Q

Stratified cuboidal cells

A

Found in the ducts of the sweat glands

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120
Q

Stratified columnar cells

A

Basal layer has polyhedral cells. Superficial layer has columnar cells.

Found in the ducts of large glands and the conjunctiva of the eye

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121
Q

Transitional epithelium (urothelium)

A

Basal layer are cuboidal or columnar. Middle layer is polyhedral or pear-shaped. Superficial layer is umbrella-shaped.

Found in the renal pelvis, ureter, and urinary bladder

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122
Q

Specialization of the lateral surface

A
  • Zona occludens
  • Zona addherins
  • Macula occludens
  • Gap junctions
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123
Q

Basal lamina

A

Composed of type IV collagen, proteoglycan (heparin sulfate), laminin (glycoprotein that binds to basal lamina), and entacidin (glycoprotein associated with laminin).
Has two parts: lamina lucida and lamina densa

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124
Q

Reticular lamina

A

Composed of collagen type III fibers and is below the basal lamina

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125
Q

Hemidesmosomes

A

Located on the inner surface of the basal lamina in cells that are exposed to stress (stratifies squamous)

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126
Q

Metaplasia

A

One mature epithelium changes into another epithelial cell due to an abnormal stimuli or inflammation

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127
Q

In smokers…

A

Pseudostratified changed to stratified squamous

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128
Q

Uterine infections…

A

Simple columnar changes to stratified squamous

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129
Q

GERD…

A

Stratified squamous changes to simple columnar

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130
Q

Exocrine glands

A

Have a duct that carries secretion to the outside surface or lumen if the viscera

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131
Q

Endocrine glands

A

Don’t have a duct and secretions are carried through the circulatory system

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132
Q

Simple(unbranched glands)

A

Ducts don’t branch but secretory portion can.

Three types: tubular, alveolar, and tuboalveolar

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133
Q

Compound (branched)

A

Ducts branch

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134
Q

Merocrine

A

Molecules are secreted by exocytosis

Examples: pancreatic acinar cells, salivary glands

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135
Q

Apocrine

A

Apical surface of the cell is lost and cytoplasm disintegrates to release molecule

Example: mammary gland, ciliary body of the eyelid

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136
Q

Holocrine

A

Whole cell is secreted and disintegrated to release molecules

Examples: tarsal (mboidium) region of eyelid, sebaceous gland of hair follicles

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137
Q

Serous cells

A

Apex is lumen. Nucleus is round/oval. Lots of ER, golgi, and secretory granules. Is eosophilic due to immature and mature secretory granules

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138
Q

Mucous cells

A

Basal nucleus that is flat. Basal surface includes ER, Golgi, and nucleus. Apical surface has secretory granules. Has a greater lumen than serous cells. Does not take in the H&E stain due to mucous cytoplasm

Rough ER and golgi have enzymes called glycosyltransferases that add sugar to polypeptide.

Examples: sublingual salivary glands, glands of respiratory , genital tract

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139
Q

Mixed glands

A

Has both serine and mucous components. Serous cells at the end form crescent cells called serous demunles

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140
Q

Goblet cells

A

Unicellular glands that have a basal nucleus with an ER surrounding it. Golgi is above it and secretory granules are on top containing mucin. Mucin will hydrate to become mucus that will line the lumen

Example: small intestine, large intestine, and respiratory epithelium

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141
Q

Myoepithelial cells

A

Found between the basal lamina and the epithelium cells. Star-shaped and processes tough acinal portion. Helps in contracting the secretions into the duct. Have myosin and actin

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142
Q

Absorption

A

Concentrating bike and absorbing water and ions. Goes from lumen to the cell. Microvilli help absorb nutrients.

Example: intestine and gallbladder

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143
Q

Secretion

A

Lose water from interstitial fluid. Goes from cell to lumen

Example: choroid plexus, salivary gland, ciliary body

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144
Q

Microvilli

A

Finger-like projections of cytoplasm that help in absorption and contraction. Contains myosin I, myosin II and actin filaments

Example: intestine and kidney

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145
Q

Villin

A

Located at the tip of the microvilli and anchors the actin filaments

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146
Q

Terminal web

A

Horizontal layer of actin filaments that are located under the base of the microvilli. Stabilized by spectrin

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147
Q

Spectrin

A

Anchors the terminal web to the apical membrane of the cell in microvilli

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148
Q

Cilia

A

Hair-like projections of the cytoplasm

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149
Q

Basal body of cillia…

A

Contains 9 triplets of microtubules

Is thin and dark-staining

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150
Q

Inner core of cilia

A

Contains 9 doublets of microtubules surrounding a pair of microtubules in the center.
Microtubules have A and B subunits
Have arms that extend from the A subunit and form cross-bridges with the B subunit

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151
Q

Dyenin

A

Protein that is in the arms of microtubules

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152
Q

Nexin

A

Links microtubules together

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153
Q

Stereocillia

A

Long microvilli that have thick and thin regions. The thick regions have cytoplasmic bridges in between them. There’s is no villin

Example: male reproductive tract (vas deferens and ductule deferens) and hair receptors of the ear

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154
Q

Erzin

A

Plasma protein that attaches actin bundles to apical region of the cytoplasm in sterocillia

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155
Q

Flagellum

A

Long cillia that is found only in the male sperm cell

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156
Q

Tight junction (zonula occludens)

A

Fusion of some plasma proteins of adjacent cells on their lateral side. Leads to things passing between apical and lateral regions

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157
Q

Belt desmosomes (zonula adherens)

A

Connect actin filaments from one cell to the other cell

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158
Q

Desmosomes (maculae occludens)

A

Main junction for cells to bind to each other. Scattered across the cell membrane.

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159
Q

Circular plaque

A

On the membranes of each cell

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160
Q

Cadherins

A

Link the adjacent plaques. Can zip up the space

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161
Q

Intermediate filaments

A

Can bind to the plaques and helps relieve the tension on either side

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162
Q

Gap junctions (nexus)

A

Form channels between adjacent cells.

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163
Q

Connexons

A

Protein that helps form the channels to help ions and other small substances cross the membrane

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164
Q

Lamina lucidin

A

Contains laminin

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165
Q

Lamina densa

A

Contains type IV collagen and heparin sulfate

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166
Q

Attaching proteins

A

Help connect the basal lamina to the lamina retucularis. Contains type VII collagen

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167
Q

Lamina reticularis

A

Contains type III collagen

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168
Q

Type IV collagen

A

Form a meshwork of procollagen that helps in structure and filtration of the basal lamina

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169
Q

Type VII collagen

A

Attaches the lamina reticularis to the basal lamina

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170
Q

Hematoxylin and eosin

A

Simple staining technique

Hematoxylin: basic stain (positive charge) that stains blue
Eosin: acidic stain (negative charge) that stains pink

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171
Q

Silver staining

A

Uses silver and stains proteins (type III collagen) and DNA

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172
Q

Toulidine blue

A

Has a property called metachromasia which is staining tissues in different shades of a color

Stains blue in solution but red in mast cell granules

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173
Q

Giemsa/ Wright stain

A

Stains for blood and bone marrow. Smears are a mixture of basic (methylene blue) and acidic (eosin)

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174
Q

Osmium tetroxide

A

Stain lipids

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175
Q

Sudan III & IV

A

Used instead of oil red o since it gives a darker red color

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176
Q

Amniotic cavity

A

Forms in the second week. Trophoblast and embryoblast separate and form a cavity in between. Roof is amnion and floor is epiblast. Amniotic fluid is deceived from maternal blood and fetal urine

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177
Q

Developing sinusoids

A

9th day: holes form in the syncytiotrophoblast called lacunae
12th day: holes fuse to form a membrane called the lacunae network.
Maternal capillaries in the endometrium dilate and seep into the network

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178
Q

Yolk sac

A

Happen at 8th day if development. Hypoblast cells migrate ventrally (downward) and form extraceolomic membrane
Yolk sac is hypoblast + extracoelomic membrane
Yolk sac supplies early nutrients, contain n primordial germ cells, source of blood cells, shock absorber

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179
Q

Extraceolomic cavity

A

12th day of development. Fuses to form a large singular cavity

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180
Q

Chorion

A

Formed by two trophoblasts and extra embryonic mesoderm. Protects the embryo and produces hCG. Connecting stalk connects embryoblast to trophoblast

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181
Q

Gastrulation

A

Forming three layers of cells. Epiblast will migrate medially to the primitive streak and go ventrally (inwards) to displace the hypoblast to form endoderm. Will then go in between endodermis and epiblast to form mesoderm and finally replace itself to form ectoderm. Process goes causally to cranially

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182
Q

Ectoderm

A

Forms epidermis and nervous system

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183
Q

Endoderm

A

Epithelial lining of GI tract, resp tract, etc

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184
Q

Mesoderm

A

Everything else (bones, body cavities, CT)

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185
Q

Notochord

A

Forms on 16th day. Induces tissues to become vertebral bodies and induces neurulation

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186
Q

Oophoryngeal membrane

A

Forms at the cranial end of the disc. Will dissolve to form the tract connecting the mouth to the GI tract and pharynx

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187
Q

Cloacal membrane

A

Forms at the caudal end if the disc. Will form the opening of the anus, the urinary tract, and reproductive tracts

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188
Q

Allantois

A

When cloacal membrane forms, the wall of the yolk sac will form the allantois. In most animals, the allantois is responsible for gas exchange and waste removal. But placenta does this in humans

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189
Q

Neurulation

A

Notochord will induce formation of the neural plate. Neural plate will elevate to form neural folds. Neural folds will fuse to form neural tube

Neural tube forms the brain and spinal chord

190
Q

Neural crest cells

A

Slip under during development of neural tube. Forms autonomic nervous ganglia, spinal + cranial nerves&ganglia, adrenal mediated skeletal muscular components of the head

191
Q

Head divides into 3 compartments:

A
  • Prosencephalon (forebrain)
  • Mesoncephalon (midbrain)
  • Rhomboncephalon (hindbrain)
192
Q

Somites

A

Develop in the third week. Forms between the mesoderm next to the notochord and neural tube and forms paired longitudinal columns of paraxial mesoderm. These are segmented into paired, cube-shaped somites

Number of somites can be corresponded to the age of the embryo

193
Q

Forming blood vessels

A

Happens in third week. Spaces develop in the blood islands to form ,
lumen of blood vessel. Pluripotent stem cells develop into blood cells

194
Q

Heart forms and begins to beat by…

195
Q

Chorionic villi

A

Finger like-projection on chorion. Blood vessels of chronic villin connect to the embryonic stalk by connecting stalk (umbilical chord)

196
Q

Placenta develops in…

197
Q

Primitive node

A

Swelling at one end of the primitive streak. Is the first and central structure in determining the cranio-caudal axis.

  • Determines growth of the notochord cranially by HNF-beta 3
  • Determines growth of the primitive streak caudally by nodal
  • Determines body axis by goosecoid
  • Induces cells to become motile and migrate by T gene
198
Q

Prechordal plate

A

Also establishes cranial aspect by lim-1

199
Q

Anetero-posterior axis

A

Established by anterior visceral endoderm cells. Express genes for head formation.

These include OTX2, LIM 1, and HESX1

200
Q

Left-right body axis

A

Established through the primitive mode and steak which secret FGF8. Also establishes the expression of nodal. Nodal accumulates in the left side of the node

201
Q

When neural plate is induced…

A

FGF8 induces the expression of Lim-1 and LEFTY-2. Both genes regulate the expression of the transcription factor PITX2 which establishes left-sidedness

202
Q

LEFTY-1

A

Expressed on the left side of the ventral side of the neural tube

203
Q

Midline barrier

A

Accomplished by sonic hedgehog (shh) which make sure that left side genes don’t go on the right and vice versa

204
Q

Snail

A

Regulates genes required for right-sidedness

205
Q

Cranial dysgenesis (sirenomelia)

A

Caudal defect resulting from insufficient mesoderm formation. Also due to T gene. Leads to fused lower limbs and renal agenesis. Is teratogenic and genetic

206
Q

Holoprosencephaly

A

Prechordal plate and anterior ectoderm fail to secrete shh and other factors needed for induction and early development of the forebrain.

  • Cranial defect
  • Neuronal and craniofacial cell death
  • Small forebrain and fused ventricles
  • Teratogenic
207
Q

Conjoined twins

A

May be due to underexpression of goosecoid

208
Q

Connective tissue

A

Most abundant tissue in our body.

Has ground substance, cells, and fibers.

Divided into:

  • CT proper (loose and dense)
  • Fluid CT blood
  • Supportive CT bone and cartilage
209
Q

Function of CT

A
  • Connect epithelial to basal lamina
  • Provide structure
  • Store energy
  • Transports materials
210
Q

Cells in CT

A
  • Fibroblast
  • Macrophages
  • Mesenchymal cells
  • Microphages
  • Lymphocytes
  • Adipocytes
  • Mast cells
211
Q

Fibroblast

A

All CT comes from here. Secrete proteins and hyaluronon. Produce fibers and ground substance

Has unbranched cytoplasm, small nucleus, and little rER and no Golgi. This makes it inactive

212
Q

Macrophages

A

Part of immune system and eat up pathogens

213
Q

Adipocytes

A

Cells with large fat droplets

214
Q

Mesenchymal cells

A

Stem cells that respond to infection and injury. Differentiates into different CT tissue types

215
Q

Melanocytes

A

Store the brown pigment melanin

216
Q

Mast cells

A

Stimulate inflammation after an injury. Secrete histamine and heparin.

Basophils are mast cells in the blood

217
Q

Lymphocytes

A

Cells of the lymphatic system (ex: plasma cells)

218
Q

Microphages

A

Respond to signals sent by macrophages and mast cells.

Ex: neutrophils and eosinophils

219
Q

Collagenous fiber

A

Made of collagen and is strong. Found mostly in dense CT. Is unbranched. Fresh fibers are colorless but when ores their in late numbers, looks white

Ex: tendons and ligaments

220
Q

Reticular fiber

A

Thin collagen fibers. Highly branched. Forms a mesh-work. Supports organs (spleen, liver, kidney)

221
Q

Elastic fibers

A

Made of elastin. Fibers branch.

Ex: aortic wall, vocal chords, air passages

222
Q

Mesenchyme tissue

A

Gives rise to all CT. Is embryonic in origin. Has semi fluid ground substance with reticular fibers. Has an oval nucleus, prominent nucleolus, and little cytoplasm

223
Q

Mucous tissue (Wharton’s jelly)

A

Found only in the umbilical chord. Has star-shaped cells. Very few cells. Ground substance is made if hyaluronic acid.

224
Q

Fibroblasts

A

Elongated cells with branched cytoplasm, large nucleus with prominent nucleolus, and lots of rER and Golgi

225
Q

Adipocytes

A

Nucleus is pushed towards the end of the cell due to the fat droplet.

Two types: unliocular and multilocular

226
Q

Unilocular (white fat)

A

In adults. Stores fat. Most common fat. Found in abdomen, butt, stomach, thighs, omentry (between stomach) and mesentry (posterior of abdomen)

One large fat droplet.

227
Q

Multilocular (brown fat)

A

In kids. Has multiple fat droplets. Breaks down fat and produces energy. Has a lot of mitochondria

228
Q

Areolar CT

A

Loose CT. Least specialized and has a lot of elastin fibers (stretching). Found in capillary beds and blood vessels. Has all three fibers (black=elastin, pink=collagen). Cells are mostly fibroblasts

229
Q

Reticular tissue

A

Loose CT. Network of fibers and cells that hold up vital organs.

230
Q

Dense regular

A

Fibers go in one direction and fibroblasts are in between them. It’s white when I stained due to presence of collagen.
Forms tendon

231
Q

Dense irregular

A

Fibers go in all different directions. This helps them in holding up force from all sides.

Ex: white if the eyeball, dermis of the skin

232
Q

Elastic CT

A

Branching elastic fibers and fibroblasts. Can stretch and still goes back to its shape.

Ex: lung tissue, vocal chords, ligament between vertebrae

233
Q

Collage type I

A

They are large fibrils. Found in the bones, dentin, dermis, cornea. Two also alpha chains are similar and one is different. Synthesizes from fibroblasts and osteoblasts

234
Q

Collagen type II

A

Small fibrils that are very thin. All three alpha chains are identical. Found in cartilage (hyaline and elastic). Synthesizes from chondroblasts

235
Q

Collagen type III

A

Small fibrils. Found in the lamina reticularis and reticular fibers. Synthesizes from fibroblasts, reticular cells, smooth muscle cells, and hepatocytes

236
Q

Collagen type IV

A

Sheetlike. Found in the basal lamina (lamina densa). Synthesized from epithelial cells, Schwann cells, and muscle cells

237
Q

Collagen type VII

A

Sheetlike network. In the anchoring fibrils. Synthesizes from epidermal cells

238
Q

Collagen synthesis

A

Synthesizes from fibroblasts, osteoblasts, chondroblasts, and odontoblasts. Made up of glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline.

239
Q

Tropocollagen

A

The main protein subunit of collagen. Each molecule is made up of 3 alpha chains intertwined in a right handed helix.

Length=280nm
Width= 1.5nm
One turn= 8.6nm

Every three amino acids is glycine. The others are proline, hydroxyproline, and hydroxylysine

240
Q

Fibrils

A

Bundles of fibers

241
Q

Fibrils

A

Bundles of tropocollagen

242
Q

Have two regions in collagen

A

1) Gap regions: gaps and is light

2) Overlapping regions: no gaps and is dark

243
Q

Reticular CT

A

Has reticular fibers that are synthesized from reticular cells. Has collagen type III. Does not stain with H&E. Stains with silver slats (agyrophilic)

244
Q

Elastic fibers

A

Synthesis of elastin is similar to that of collagen. Is yellow on gross tissue. Stains with eosin but not well. Stains with:

  • Orscein: black
  • Resorcin-fuschin: purple
  • Wigert’s: black-purple
245
Q

Elastic fiber amino acids

A

Desmosine and isodesmosine

246
Q

Ground substance

A

Supports fibers and cells. Determines consistency.

Contains:

  • Chondroitin sulphate: jelly-like substance providing support
  • Adhesion proteins (fibronectin): binds collagen to ground substance
  • Hyaluronic acid: thick viscous and slippery
247
Q

Glucosaminoglycans (GAGs)

A

Linear polysaccharide that forms disaccharide units. Forms proteoglycan

248
Q

Proteoglycan

A

Anchors itself to hyaluronic acid

249
Q

Osteogenesis imperfecta

A

Deficiency in collagen type I. Can easily fracture bones doing simple movements. Also leads to a blue sclera, hearing problems, bruising, nose bleeds, and spine issues.

Peak year if fractures: 0-15 yrs

250
Q

Ehler Donlos syndrome (EDS)

A

Deficiency in collagen type III. Is a polygenetic (caused by more than one gene). Skin is very stretchy and fragile. Joints are hypremovable

251
Q

Alport’s syndrome (hereditary nephritis)

A

Deficiency in collagen type IV. Leads to hematuria since lamina densa is not secure. Characterized by glomerulonephritis. Can lead to hearing loss and affect eyes

252
Q

Kindler’s syndrome

A

Rare genetic skin condition. Leads to blistering and scarring of tissue. Leads to changes in appearance of the skin (poilkilodrema)

253
Q

Axial bones

A

80 bones and include the head, thoracic cage (ribs and sternum), and vertebrae (sacrum)

254
Q

Appendicular bones

A

126 bones and include the pectoral girdle (scapula and clavicle), upper and lower limbs, and pelvic girdle

255
Q

Compact bone

A

Dense and strong bone that has a Haversian canal

256
Q

Spongy/cancellous bones

A

Has spaces in between bone marrow

257
Q

Long bones

A

Height is greater than the width. Has diapahysis and epiphysis. Has articulated cartilage in epiphysis that is full of hyaline cartilage.

Ex: femur, tibia, ulna, metacarpals, metatarsals

258
Q

Short bones

A

Cuboidal in shape. Has a thin layer of compact with spongy bone. Ex: carpals and tarsals

259
Q

Diaphysis

A

Long shaft that.

Has two membranes:

  • Periosteum: outer
  • Endostium: inner
260
Q

Epiphysis

A

At the extremities of the diaphysis. Covered with articulous cartilage.

261
Q

Metaphysis

A

Between the end of the diaphysis and the epiphyseal line

262
Q

Epiphyseal plate

A

Have this in kids since their bones need to grow

263
Q

Epiphyseal line

A

Have this is adults since their bones have finished growing

264
Q

Flat bones

A

Flat and elongated. Thin layer of spongy in between two layers of compact bone. Helps in muscle attachment

Ex: sternum, bones of the skull, scapula

265
Q

Sesamoid bones

A

Short bones embedded in a tendon.

Ex: patella

266
Q

Irregular bones

A

Ex: coccyx, sacrum, lower bones of the skull, vertebrae

267
Q

Membranous formation of bones

A

Membrane becomes ossified over time

Ex: skull bones

268
Q

Catiligenous formation of bones

A

Cartilage became ossified over time

Ex: long bones

269
Q

Nutrient artery

A

Runs through the nutrient foremen and supplies blood to the whole medula, metaphysis, and 2/3 of cortex

Fuses with the epiphyseal, metaphysial, and periostial arteries

270
Q

Periosteal arteries

A

Goes through the periosteum and enters the volkmann’s canal. Supplies the last third of the cortex

271
Q

Epiphyseal arteries

A

Located on the non-articular surface of bone. Has numerous foramina but most of them are for exiting

272
Q

Metaphysial arteries

A

Further reinforces the nutrient artery

273
Q

Synchondrosis (fibrous joints)

A

Have little to no movement. Has collagen fibers in between them.

Ex: sutures (between skull), gomphoses (between mandible and teeth), and syndemoses (between bones)

274
Q

Drainage of blood

A
  • By veins that run parallel to the arteries

- By veins that leave the cortical periosteum through muscle insertions

275
Q

Amphiarthosis (collagen joints)

A

Has some movement (more than fibrous).

Divided into:

  • Synchondrosis
  • Symphysis
276
Q

Synchondrosis

A

Primary cartilaginous joints. Has hyaline cartilage

Ex: first vertebrae connecting to the sternum

277
Q

Symphysis

A

Secondary cartiligenous joint. Has fibrocartilage.

Ex: pubis

278
Q

Synosteosis

A

2 bones are joined together

Ex: joined the bones in the cranial part

279
Q

Diarthrosis (synovial joints)

A

Most movable joint. Has a synovial capsule surrounding the joint, inner portion of the capsule has a synovial membrane which secretes synovial fluid.

Types of synovial joints:

  • Ball and socket
  • Gliding
  • Hinge
  • Pivot
  • Elipsoid
  • Saddle
280
Q

Tendon

A

Connects muscle to bone

281
Q

Ligament

A

Connects bone to bone

282
Q

Ball and socket

A

Allows for flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, internal, and external rotation

Ex: shoulder and hip

283
Q

Gliding

A

Bones glide past each other

Ex: intercarpal joints

284
Q

Hinge

A

Flexion and extension

Ex: elbow and knee

285
Q

Pivot

A

One bone rotates around the other

Ex: neck

286
Q

Saddle

A

Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction

Ex: thumb

287
Q

Elipsoid

A

Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction

Ex: in wrists

288
Q

Red blood cells

A

Biconcave disks that have no nucleus and no organelles. Carries oxygen to tissues and carbon dioxide to lungs. Have a lifespan of 120 days. 90% are phagocytozed but the rest break down intravascularly

289
Q

White blood cells

A

Defend the body against foreign objects. Divided into granulocytes and agranulocytes

290
Q

Neutrophils

A

Have a diameter of 10-15 micrometers. Have a lifespan of 2-3 days. Have a multilobed nuclei. Make of 40-75% of WBC

Have three granules:

  • Specific granules
  • Azurophilic granules
  • Tertiary granules

Stain dark blue to purple. First line of defense

291
Q

Eosiniophils

A

Size is similar to neutrophils. Make up 2-5% of WBCs. Have a bi-lobed nuclei. Lifespan of 8-12 days

Have two granules:
-Specific elongated granules
-Azurophilic granules
Granules in cytoplasm are red/orange

Respond to allergens, inflammation, and infection

292
Q

Basophils

A

Make up 0-5% of WBCs. Have a bi-lobed nucleus that is obscured by the granules. Captures basic stain

Have two granules:

  • Specific
  • Non-specific

Respond to allergens

293
Q

Lymphocytes

A

Two types:

  • B cells: plasma cells and antibodies
  • T cells: directly attack cells

Three sizes: small (same size as RBC), medium, and large

Have Azurophilic granules. Nucleus is spherical

294
Q

Monocytes

A

Large, kidney-shaped nucleus. Stains dark blue to purple. Have Azurophilic granules. Acts as macrophages. Have large amounts of lysosomal enzymes

295
Q

Platelets

A

Not cells!!! Broken pieces of magakaryocytes. Clots blood by forming a fibrin mesh work to trap blood cells

296
Q

Thoracic cage

A

An osteo-cartiligenous cage that has a narrow inlet and a wide outlet. Contains the lungs, heart, trachea, esophagus, lymph nodes and great vessels

Boundaries:

  • Anteriorly: sternum and costal cartilage
  • Posteriorly: vertebrae
  • Laterally: ribs and costal cartilage
297
Q

Thoracic inlet

A

Narrow downward sloping forward opening. Communicates with the head and neck.

Boundaries:

  • Anteriorly: manubrium of sternum
  • Posteriorly: T1 veterbrae
  • Laterally: 1st rib and costal cartilage
298
Q

Thoracic outlet

A

Closed by the diaphragm at the bottom. Opens into the peritoneal cavity

Bounded by:

  • Anteriorly: costal cartilages of ribs 7-10
  • Posteriorly: T12
  • Laterally: 11th and 12th rib

Structure that open into the outlet:

  • Inferior vena cava at T8
  • Esophagus at T10
  • Aorta, azygous veins, and thoracic duct at T12
299
Q

Ribs

A

12 ribs in total. Divided into:

  • True ribs: ribs 1-7; connect to the sternum directly
  • Vertebrochondral ribs: ribs 8-10; connect indirectly to the sternum with the costal cartilage binding to rib 7
  • Floating ribs: don’t attach to the sternum

First ribs attach to the sternum using a synchondral joint
Ribs 2-7 joins to the sternum by synovial joints

300
Q

Sternum

A

Contains the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process

301
Q

Manubrium

A

Thickest part of the three bones. Contains T3 and T4.

Inferior part of the manubrium has the jugular, suprasternal notch, or fossa jugularis sternalis. This is in between the two clavicular notches

302
Q

Body

A

Contains T5-T9

303
Q

Sternal angle

A

Also known as the angle of Louis or manibriosternal joint. This is a synarthrosis joint

304
Q

Xiphoid process

A

Smalles bone that is curved and pointy. Has T9. Becomes ossified at age 40

305
Q

Xiphesternal joint

A

Between the xiphoid process and body

306
Q

Thoracic wall

A

Has three main parts:

  • External muscle: used for inspiration
  • Internal muscle: used for expiration
  • Innermost intercostal muscle: used for expiration
307
Q

Endothoracic fascia

A

Sepeartes the Skelton from the muscles

308
Q

Diaphragm

A

Separates the thoracic viscera from the abdominal one

309
Q

Body cavities

A

Dorsal:

  • Cranial
  • Vertebral

Ventral:

  • Thoracic
  • Abdominal
  • Pelvic
310
Q

Thoracic cavity

A

Contains the pleural cavities and mediastinum (contains the pericardium)

311
Q

Pleural cavities

A

Houses one lung.

A pleura is a serous membrane that folds inward to make two membranes

Visceral pleural: lines the lung
Parietal pleura: touches the abdominal cavity but is separated by endothoracic fascia

Pleural space: in between the visceral and parietal layers

312
Q

Mediastinum

A

Middle of the lungs. Includes all the thoracic viscera except the lungs.

Bounded by:

  • Anteriorly: sternum
  • Posteriorly: vertebrae
  • Laterally: pleurae

Divided into:

  • Superior mediastinum
  • Inferior mediastinum: anterior, middle, and posterior
313
Q

Superior mediastinum

A

Bounded by:

  • Superiorly: thoracic inlet
  • Inferiorly: transverse thoracic plane
  • Anteriorly: manubrium
  • Posteriorly: T1 to T4
  • Laterally: pleura

Structures in the superior mediastinum:

  • Esophagus (posterior) and trachea (anterior)
  • Arteries: brachiocephalic arteries, common cartons arteries, arch of the aorta, and subclavian arteries
  • Veins: brachiocephalic veins and superior vena cava
  • Thymus, lymph nodes, and thoracic duct
  • Nerves: phrenic nerves, vague nerves, recurrent laryngeal nerves, sympathetic trunk
314
Q

Anterior mediastinum

A

In front of the heart

Contains:
-Thymus, lymph nodes, and fat

315
Q

Middle mediastinum

A

Contains the heart, aorta, trachea, main bronchi, and lymph nodes

316
Q

Posterior mediastinum

A

Behind the heart

Contains the thoracic duct, descending aorta, esophagus, azygous veins

317
Q

Heat

A

About the size of your fist. Located a little to the left. Hidden by the lungs

318
Q

Pericardium

A

Made up of:

  • Fibrous outer covering made of CT
  • Myothelial layer made up of visceral and parietal

Function:

  • Anchors+protects heart
  • Makes her extra blood doesn’t get into the heart
  • Friction-free surface
  • Makes sure infecting substances fro nearby places don’t get in
319
Q

Heart wall

A
  • Epicardium: visceral layer
  • Myocardium: makes up bulk of the heart; made of cardiac muscle tissue
  • Endocardium: inside
320
Q

Apex

A

Made from the infrolateral part of the left ventricle

321
Q

Base

A

Formed by the left atrium and less from the right one. Bounded by T6 to T9. Bounded inferiorly by coronary sulcus

Pulmonary artery goes into left atrium and vena cava goes in right one

322
Q

Transverse thoracic plane

A

Horizontal plane that divides the inferior from the superior. Between the plane of Louis and IV of T4 and T5

323
Q

Embryonic period

A

Weeks 3-8

Period of organogenesis and external body structures form

324
Q

Neural folds

A

Develop at the end the 3rd week and fuse at the 5th somite.

Cranial pore closes on day 25 and caudal pore closes on day 27

325
Q

Neural crest cells

A

Formed from the edges of the neural folds and goes from cranial-caudal

Can go two ways:

  • Ventrally to be part of the mesoderm
  • Dorsally to be melanocytes in the ectoderm

Structures derived: dorsal root ganglion, odontoblasts, melanocytes, Schwann and glial cells

326
Q

Derivatives of the ectoderm

A

Hair, nails, epidermis, nervous system

327
Q

Otic and lens placode

A

Develop on day 28 by thickening of the ectoderm.

  • Otic will go on ear
  • Lens will go on eye on week 5
328
Q

Paraxial mesoderm

A

Thickens around the notochord and formed on day 19. Forms cranial-caudal

Gives rise to somites which forms the axial skeleton

  • Day 20 see some in the occipital region
  • Day 35: see 42-44 pairs

Scelrotomes give rise to the vertebral column

Dorsolateral, have dermamyotome

  • Dermatome: forms skin of back
  • Myotome: muscles
329
Q

Intermediate mesoderm

A

Urogential system

330
Q

Lateral plate mesoderm

A

Towards the end. Cavity between them divides it into somatic and splanchnic layer

331
Q

Somatic (parietal) layer

A

Lateral and ventral body wall and forms a serous membrane lining the intra-embryonic cavity

332
Q

Splancnic (visceral)layer

A

Lines the gut

333
Q

Endoderm derivatives

A
  • Forms the roof of the yolk sac
  • GI system is the main derivative
  • Forms foregut, hindgut, and midgut
  • Cranial end is separated from the stuodenum (depression between brain and heart) by buccopharyngeal membrane (breaks at 4th week)
  • At caudal end, cloacal membrane separates the hindgut from the exterior (breaks at 7th week)
  • Midgut remains in connection with yolk sac (vitielline duct connects midgut to yolk sac)

-Endoderm derivatives: epithelium of urinary bladder and urethra, primitive gut, allantois

334
Q

Fetal period

A

Weeks 9-38

Maturation of the tissues and organs

Length increases rapidly within the 3rd to 5th month

Head growth slows down compared to the rest of the body

335
Q

Third month changes

A
  • Eyes become human like
  • Eyes and ears go their normal position
  • Upper limbs reach their relative length but not the lower limbs
  • External genitalia develop
  • Muscular activity
336
Q

Fourth and fifth month

A
  • Muscular activity by the baby
  • Fetus is lined with lanugo hair
  • Reaches length of 15 cm
337
Q

Secondary half of intrauterine life

A
  • Mothers skin is lined by vernix caseoca which is a wax to easily deliver the baby
  • Baby born at 6 months won’t survive but a baby born at 7 months has a 90% chance of surviving (has weight of 1.1 kg)
  • Normal birth weight: 3-3.4 kg
  • CRL= 36 cm
  • CHL= 50 cm
338
Q

Time of birth

A

Hard to predict since irregular menses and implantation bleeding makes it difficult to determine

339
Q

Abdominal cavity

A

Extends from the diaphragm to the pelivis (iliac crest)

Supported by lumbar vertebrae Posteriorly and muscular wall anterolaterally

340
Q

Nerves of abdominal cavity

A

Lateral cutaneous nerves: first supply the thoracic cavity and then supply the abdominal cavity (under T7, 8, and 9

Lumbar nerves: main supply of abdominal cavity nerves

Innervated by autonomic nervous system

Sympathetic: preganglionic fibers come from lower thoracic (T5-T12) and L1-2. Relay in the sympathetic ganglion and reach organs through plexus on arterial wall

Parasympathetic: preganglionic parasympathetic fibers come from the vagus nerve and pelvic splanchnic nerves (S1,2,3). Postganglionoc are located on the wall of the viscera

341
Q

Veins of abdominal cavity

A

Subcutaneous veins: lie on the surface of the skin

Deep veins: run with the arteries and nerves. In portal hypertension, they dilate to drain into the femoral we in inferiorly and the auxiliary vein superiorly

342
Q

Arteries of abdominal cavity

A

Internal thoracic artery: extends from the thorax and divides into the superior epigastric artery

Femoral artery will branch off and give the inferior epigastric artery

343
Q

Anterolateral muscles of abdominal wall

A
  • External oblique
  • Internal oblique
  • Rectus abdominum
  • Transverse oblique

Innervated by the lower intercostal nerves and the first and second lumbar nerves

344
Q

External oblique

A

Extends from the lower rib to the iliac crest. Interdigitates with the serratous anterior muscle.

Aponeurosis of it gives rise to anterior part of the rectus sheath

345
Q

Internal oblique

A

Extends from the iliac and thaoracolumbar fascia to the lower ribs

Aponeurosis of it bibles rise to anterior part of rectus sheath

346
Q

Transverse abdominus

A

Extends from thoracolumbar fascia+iliac crest to the lower ribs

Aponeurosis of it gives rise to posterior part if the rectus sheath

347
Q

Rectus abdominus

A

Is anterior but not lateral like the others. Is divided into 3 or 4 smaller units which helps the muscles achieve a good function

Enclosed by rectus sheath

Provides support for the paramedical abdominal incision not mot good since there are no bones to support it

348
Q

Rectus sheath

A

Formed by aponeurosis of all three muscle layers

Above arcuate line:

  • External and anterior internal make up anterior part of sheath
  • Transverse and posterior internal make up posterior part of the sheath

Below arcuate line:
-All three muscle sheets make up the anterior layer

349
Q

Posterior muscles of the abdomen

A
  • Psoas major: extends from transverse processes of the lumbar to the lesser trochanter of the femur
  • Psoas minor: muscle on top of Psoas major
  • Quadratus lumborum: extends from 12th rib to iliac crest
350
Q

Inguinal canal

A

Located in the lower part of the abdominal wall. Allows the spermatic chord to enter the abdomen (site for inguinal hernia)

351
Q

Thoracolumbar fascia

A

Covers the quodratus lumborum

Internal and transverse oblique are derived from here

352
Q

Upper right quadrant organs

A

Liver, half of the transverse colon, gallbladder

353
Q

Upper left organs

A

Stomach, pancreases half of the transverse colon

354
Q

Lower right quadrant organs

A

Cecum, ascending colon, appendix

355
Q

Lower left quadrant

A

Rectum, descending colon, sigmoid colon

356
Q

Periteneol cavity

A

Space between the parietal and viscera peritoneum which is full of fluid to allow movement

Divided into greater sac and lesser sac

357
Q

In ascite…

A

Have more fluid than normal

358
Q

Greater sac

A

Has subdiaphragmatic and subhepatic parts

Subhepatic part is divided into supracolic and infracolic

Supracolic has parabolic gutters at the sides of the descending and ascending colon

359
Q

Lesser sac

A

Located behind the stomach

360
Q

Peritoneal folds

A
  • Greater omentum
  • Lesser omentum
  • Mesentry
361
Q

Greater omentum

A

From greater curvature of the stomach to the duodenum. Comes down like an apron over the small intestine

362
Q

Lesser omentum

A

Lesser curvature of the stomach to the liver

363
Q

Mesentry

A

Suspends the small intestine and holds it by the posterior part

364
Q

Reteroperitoneal organs

A

Behind the peritoneum

Ex: pancreas, ascending and descending colon, kidneys

365
Q

Subperitoneal organs

A

Below the peritoneum

Ex: urinary bladder

366
Q

Infraperitineal organs

A

In the peritoneum

Ex: stomach, spleen, transverse colon

367
Q

Referred pain

A

Sympathetic fibers in abdominal wall are same fibers in viscera so pain in the organs will seem like there’s pain in the abdominal wall

Ex:

  • Stomach pain will be felt in the umbilicus in T10
  • Appendix lain is filth in the inguinal region
368
Q

Function of placenta

A
  • Exchange of metabolites and get rid of waste
  • Defense: baby gets IgG antibodies
  • Production of hormones: hCG, estradiol, HPL
369
Q

HPL (human placental lactogen/ somatomammotropin)

A

Acts like a growth hormone. Secreted by syncytiotrophoblast

370
Q

Chorion

A

Surrounds the entire embryo and has chorionic villi. Formed by the trophoblast and syncytiotrophoblast

371
Q

Amnion

A

Encloses the embryo.

372
Q

Yolk sac

A
  • Transfers nutrients from 2nd-3rd week
  • Blood islands develop to make blood cells from 3rd-6th week
  • Primordial germ cells appear in the wall of yolk sac by 3rd week
373
Q

Allantois

A

Forms the urachus which connects the urinary bladder to the umblilcus. By birth, it should close on its own. If it doesn’t, then need surgery to close it to prevent infection

374
Q

Amniotic fluid

A

In the amniotic cavity

Purpose:

  • Helps allow symmetrical growth of fetus
  • Allows fetus to swim
  • Cushions embryo
375
Q

Placenta

A

Developed from chorion (embryonic side) and decidua basalis (mother’s side)

376
Q

Endometrium

A

Has 3 parts:

  • Decidua basalis: between the blastocyst and trophoblast
  • Decidua capsularis: endometrium surrounding the embryo
  • Decidua parietalis: rest of the endometrium
377
Q

Chorionic villi

A

Formed from the chorion and project into the endometrium

378
Q

Primary chorionic villi

A

Cytotrophoblast projecting into syncytiotrophoblast

379
Q

Secondary chorionic villi

A

Cytotrophoblast that has connective tissue by 3rd week

380
Q

Tertiary chorionic villi

A

In the connective tissue, mesenchymal cells differentiate into blood vessels that helps in the circulation of fetal blood in 3rd week

381
Q

Umbilical chord

A

Has two umbilical arteries and one umbilical vein. Arteries and veins have the opposite function

382
Q

Chorionic plate

A

Embryonic part of the placenta.

383
Q

Hofbaeur cells

A

Important for macrophages and xenophobic cells

384
Q

Monozygotic twins

A

Fertilized egg split in two. Has two amnions, one chorion, and one placenta

If the egg splits before 2 weeks, has one amnion, one chorion, and one placenta

385
Q

Dizygotic twins

A

Two eggs that were fertilized. Have two amnions, two chorions, and two placentas

If a monozygotic twin splits, it can also act like a dizygotic twin

If two embryos are very close to each other, share a chorion and placenta but not the amnion

386
Q

Placenta preview

A

Embryo implants in a way that the placenta grows into organs causing problems for both the mother and the baby

387
Q

Placenta accreta

A

A little in to the myometrium

388
Q

Placenta increta

A

A little more into the myometrium

389
Q

Placenta percretta

A

In the whole endometrium

390
Q

Sacrum

A

Fusion of 5 sacrum vertebrae

391
Q

Coccyx

A

Formed by 2-3 coccygeal vertebrae

392
Q

Hip bones

A

Made up of three parts:

  • Ilium
  • Ischium
  • Pubis
393
Q

Sacroiliac joint

A

Connect the sacrum to the ilium. Is a synovial joint

394
Q

Sacrociccyx joint

A

Connects the sacrum to the coccyx

Secondary cartiligenous joint

395
Q

Pubic symphysis

A

Connects the pubeces on both sides. Secondary cartilegenous joint

396
Q

Sacrospinous ligament

A

Goes from the sacrum to the spinous part of the sacrum. Forms the greater sciatic notch which is the entrance to the gluteal region&leave back of the thigh

397
Q

Sacrotuberous ligament

A

Goes from the sacrum to the tuberosity of the sacrum. Forms the lesser sciatic notch. Vessels pass first through the gluteal and then the perineum

398
Q

Obturator foramen

A

Covered by the obturaror membrane, allowing a small hole to appear (obturator canal). Canal allows the obturator nerves, arteries, and veins to pass through

399
Q

Pelvic cavity

A

Has two parts:

  • Lesser pelivis (true pelvis)
  • Greater pelivis (false pelvis)
400
Q

Lesser pelvis (true pelvis)

A

Below the pelvic brim (inlet)

Houses all the pelvic viscera

401
Q

Greater pelvis (false pelvis)

A

Above the pelvic brim (inlet). Houses the abdominal viscera

402
Q

Anterior wall of pelvis

A

Pubic bone

403
Q

Lateral wall

A

Ilium, ischium, obturator membrane, and obturator internus

404
Q

Posterior wall

A

Sacrum, coccyx, piriformis muscle

405
Q

Pelvic diaphragm

A

Leavator ani

  • Puborectalis
  • Pubococcygeous
  • Ilioccygeous

Coccygeous

406
Q

Urogential hiatus

A

Space between the left and right puborectalis. Vagina and urethra pass through this to reach the perinium

407
Q

Subpubic angle

A

Angle between the pubis

408
Q

Female pelvic organs

A

Anterior to posterior: urinary bladder, uterus+vagina, sigmoid colon, rectum

Ovaries located in the ovarian fossa

Uterine tubes stretch laterally from uterus

409
Q

Rectouterine pouch (females)

A

Pouch between rectum and uterus

410
Q

Vesicouterine pouch

A

Pouch between the urinary bladder and the uterus

411
Q

Male pelvic organs

A

Anterior to posterior: urinary bladder, prostate gland, seminal vesicle, ductus deferens (vas deferens), sigmoid colon + rectum

412
Q

Rectovesical pouch (males)

A

Between the urinary bladder and the rectum

413
Q

Abdominal aorta

A

Divides into left and right common iliac artery

414
Q

Common iliac artery

A

Divides into internal and external arteries

415
Q

External iliac arteries

A

Enters front of the thigh and leaves as the femoral artery

416
Q

Internal iliac artery

A

Divided into anterior and posterior

417
Q

Posterior internal iliac arteries

A

Supplies the sacrum and gluteal regions

418
Q

Anterior internal iliac artery

A

Supplies the urinary bladder, uterus (females), vagina (females)

419
Q

Pedendal arteries

A

Branch of anterior division. Supply sciatic notch, perineal, and inferior gluteal region

420
Q

Lumbosacral trunk

A

Arises from the lumbosacral plexus to join with the sacral nerves to form the sacral plexus

421
Q

Sacral plexus

A

Gives rise to several branches which exit the pelvic cavity to supply the gluteal, posterior thigh, and perineal region

422
Q

Pelvic splanchnic nerves

A

Are parasympathetic fibers that come from S2-4 & join the inferior hypogastric plexus

423
Q

Perinium

A

Below the pelvic diaphragm

Rectum passes through it to form the anal canal

Urethra enters it

Vagina passes through it

Divided into anterior urogenital triangle and posterior anal triangle by the ischial tuberosities

424
Q

Posterior anal triangle

A

Has the anus which is surrounded by external sphincter muscle and ischioanal fossa

425
Q

Anterior urogential triangle

A

Females: contains urethra and vagina

Makes: contains penis and urethra

426
Q

Teratology

A

Study of birth defects. Most common is multifactorial

Minor anomalies like ear defects can be an indicator of a very serious disease

427
Q

Malformations

A

Occurs during organogenesis (3rd week-8th week)

3rd and 4th week are the most sensitive to teratogens

428
Q

Disruptions

A

Morphological alterations of already formed structures

429
Q

Deformations

A

Result from mechanical forces that mold a part of the fetus

430
Q

Syndrome

A

Group of anomalies occurring together that have a specific cause

431
Q

Association

A

Non-random appearance of defects but don’t know the cause

432
Q

Infectious agents

A
  • Rubella
  • Cytomegalovirus
  • Herpes simplex
  • Toxoplasmosis
  • Syphilis
433
Q

Rubella

A

Heart defects, cataracts, glaucoma, hearing loss, tooth abnormalities

434
Q

Cytomegalovirus

A

Microcephalic, visual impairment, fetal death, and intellectual disability

435
Q

Toxoplasmosis (protozoan)

A

Hydrocephalus, cerebral calcification, microphthalmia

436
Q

Herpes simplex

A

Microcephaly, retinal dysplasia, microphthalmia

437
Q

Syphilis

A

Intellectual disability and hearing loss

438
Q

Physical agents

A
  • X-rays
  • Hyperthermia
  • Radiation
439
Q

X-rays

A

Microcephalic, spina bifida, intellectual disability

440
Q

Hyperthermia

A

Anencephaly, spina bifida, intellectual disability

441
Q

Thalidomide (antinausea drug)

A

Limb defects

442
Q

Valporic acid (antiepilpetic drug)

A

Neural tube defects, heart+craniofacial+limb defects

443
Q

Androgenic agents

A

Can turn female genitalia into male

444
Q

DES (synthetic estrogen)

A

Vagina+uterus defects+fallopian tube, vaginal cancer, malformed testes

445
Q

Oral contraceptives

A

A lot safer now

446
Q

Cortisone

A

Cleft palates, orofacial cleft

447
Q

Hormones causing defects

A
  • Andrigenic agents
  • DES
  • Oral contraceptives
  • Cortisone
448
Q

Maternal disease

A
  • Dibates

- Phenylketonuria

449
Q

Maternal diabetes

A

Excess glucose goes to baby and triggered baby’s pancreas to form insulin so when fetus is born, has a higher weight than normal

Heart+neural tube defects

450
Q

Phenylketonuria

A

Intellectual disability, microcephaly

451
Q

Nutritional deficiency

A
  • Folic acid
  • Zinc
  • Iron
  • Iodide
452
Q

Folic acid

A

Takes to prevent neural tube defects

453
Q

Iodide

A

Prevent cretinism

454
Q

Zinc

A

Prevent premature birth

455
Q

Iron

A

Prevent low birth weight

456
Q

Male-mediated tertatogens

A

Exposure to smoking and alcohol leads to deformed +bad sperm

457
Q

Sacrococcygeal teratoma

A

Remnants of the primitive strake stay in the sacrococcygeal region and leads to tumors forming there

458
Q

Holoprosencephaly

A

Small forebrain, fused ventricles, eyes are close to each other

Caused by drinking alcohol

459
Q

Caudal dysgenesis (sirenomelia)

A

Lower limb defects, fused urogential system

Associated with maternal diabetes

460
Q

Prenatal diagnosis

A
  • Ultrasonography
  • Maternal screening
  • Amniocentesis
  • Chorionic villus sampling
  • Cordocentesis
  • Karyotyping
461
Q

Ultrasonography

A

Can begin seeing fetus at 6 weeks. Can show neural tube defects, heart defects. Can’t show Down’s syndrome

Can see CRL+CHL

462
Q

Maternal screening

A
  • Alpha ferroprotein: produces by fetal liver and increases during second trimester and decreases by week 30. Low levels=downs syndrome, trisomy 18, sex chromosomal abnormalities
  • Unconjugated estradiol: low=downs syndrome
  • hCG: decreases after week 16. If high, then molar pregnancy
  • Inhibin a: detesting trisomy 21, 18, and other chromosomal abnormalities
463
Q

Amniocentesis

A

Performed at weeks 15,17,20. Take a bit of a bit of fluid for testing. Can’t see Down’s syndrome

464
Q

Chorionic villi sampling

A

Performed at weeks 8,10,12.

Test for chromosomal abnormalities (not Down’s syndrome)

465
Q

Umbilical chord sampling (cordocentesis)

A

Blood withdrawn from umbilical chord. Performed when all other methods can’t detect disease. Can detect Down’s syndrome

466
Q

Karyotyping

A

Looking at all the chromosomes to see chromosomal defects

467
Q

Fetal medical treatment

A

Adding hormones to fetus to treat inborn errors of metabolism

468
Q

Fetal surgery

A

Open uterus to repair spina bifida and diaphragmatic hernia

469
Q

Stem cell transplantation

A

Adding stem cells to fetus before week 18 (before baby develops immune response)

470
Q

Cord cell banking

A

Keeping chord cells in a bank since they have a lot of mesenchymal cells

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