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FB 1 (my cards) > Physiology-Endterm > Flashcards

Physiology-Endterm Flashcards

1
Q

Function of cellular junctions

A
  • Mechanical stability
  • Sepration of membrane domains
  • Signal conduction between cells
  • Maintaining integrity during contraction
  • Binding growth factors together (ex: neurons growth core guidance)
  • Help in cell migration, wound healing, phagocytosis
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2
Q

Tight junction (occluding junctions)

A

Separates 2 things in epithelial cells

  • Different compartments of fluids from each other
  • Apical and basolateral surface

Tight junctions are located below the apical surface

Makes sure nothing unregulated enters or exits the cell

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3
Q

Tight junction proteins

A

Claudius and occludens

Each claudin connects to another claudin and the same for occludens

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4
Q

Claudin

A

Major part of the tight junctions

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5
Q

Occludens

A

Don’t know the function of it

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6
Q

Tight junctions and role in glucose transport

A

Need to bring glucose from the lumen to the blood. So have glucose transporters that are secondary active transporters that bring glucose from the lumen to the cell. Have glucose carriers that work by facilitated diffusion to bring glucose to the blood. Have high glucose in cell and low in lumen.

Tight junctions make sure that the glucose transporters and the glucose carriers stay in their respective side

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7
Q

Heregulin

A

Secreted by epithelial cells. Helps stimulate cell repair during injury. Heregulin is located in the apical surface while while it’s receptors are located in the basolateral surface.

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8
Q

Tight junctions and heregulin

A

Tight junctions make sure that heregulin and its receptors stay on their respective side during normal times.

When the cell is injured, tight junctions will disappear allowing heregulin to bind to its receptor and heal the cell. This is an autocrine process

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9
Q

Desmosomes

A

Maintains the integrity of the cell. Found in places that are exposed to mechanical stress. Is an adhering junction.

Has an attachment plaque

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10
Q

Attachment plaque

A

Make of desmoplakin, plakoglobins, and plakophikin. Plakophikin connected desmoplakin and plakoglobins together.

The attachment plaque is connected to keratin which then connects it to the cytoskeleton

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11
Q

Extracellular side of desmosomes

A

Connected by adhering proteins such as cadherins to connect attachment plaques to each other

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12
Q

If no desmosomes…

A

Cells are transformed to metastatic cancer cells that can move around freely

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13
Q

Anchoring junction

A

Anchor between

  • Other cells
  • Basolateral surface to the basal lamina

Has intracellular attachment proteins and transmembrane adhesion proteins

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14
Q

Transmembrane adhesion proteins

A

The proteins that connect to the surfaces

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15
Q

Intracellular attachment proteins

A

Binds to the transmembrane adhesion proteins

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16
Q

Gap junctions

A

Channels that allow ions and small molecules to pass through. Made of connexons

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17
Q

Connexons

A

Hexagonal tubes that are make of 6 connexins

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18
Q

Advantages of gap junctions

A

Are really fast

A lot of insects have them as their main signaling mechanism which is why there are so fast

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19
Q

Disadvantages of gap junctions

A

The signal is bidirectional

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20
Q

Function of gap junctions

A
  • Allows cells to work all together since if one cell is depolarized, the next cell will be as well (In smooth and cardiac muscle)
  • Helps in signal transduction pathways
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21
Q

Integrins

A

Connects the cytoskeleton to the ECM by ECM proteins and the adaptor protein

Helps in cells migration, wound healing, and macrophages

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22
Q

Adaptor proteins

A

Interacts with keratin and actin filaments of the cytoskeleton

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23
Q

ECM proteins

A

Collagen, laminin, and fibronectin

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24
Q

Mechanism of Integrins

A
  • Integrins are in the inactive or bent form
  • Signal transduction pathway will phosporlate talon and talon will activate Integrins by getting rid of the mask on the ECM binding side and dimerizing the integrins together
  • Ingegrins bind to the specific ECM protein
  • Focal-adhesion molecules will recruit intracellular proteins to hold the integrin in place (vincillin and actin)
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25
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Made of actin and myosin

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26
Q

Actin

A

Small protein that has 2 forms

  • G-actin: monomer
  • F-actin: polymer

Can work by itself or with myosin

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27
Q

Myosin II

A

Most abundant type and found in muscle cells

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28
Q

Myosin I and V

A

Found in non-muscle cells

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29
Q

Microfilaments

A

Made of F-actin and bound proteins

Thinnest filaments of the cytoskeleton

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30
Q

Polymerization of actin (nucleation)

A

G monomer has clefts to which ATP binds. Mg is needed as a cofactor (ATP binds here). Binding of ATP leads the G monomer to be converted to F-actin which is a double helical form

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31
Q

Equilibrium between…

A

G actin and F actin forms

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32
Q

Part of actin

A

Has 2 parts:

  • Positive end
  • Negative end
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33
Q

Positive end

A

Activated G actin can easily be attached and elongate the actin filaments

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34
Q

Negative end

A

Depolymerization happens here and stabilizes the structure

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35
Q

Cytochalasins

A

Inhibit polymerization and activate depolymerization

Bad since the cell doesn’t have any support so is weak

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36
Q

Phalloidans

A

Inhibit depolymerization and activates polymerization

Bad since the cell doesn’t need that much actin

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37
Q

Actin location

A

Located at the peripheral regions of the cell since this is where the cell moves

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38
Q

Actin function

A
  • Stabilize periphery of cell
  • Responsible for cell shape
  • Allows cell movement
  • Can generate force with myosin
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39
Q

Cell movement by actin

A
  • Integrin-shuttle movement: cell rolls on its membrane due to actin and integrin is inserted through the front of the cell
  • Transcytosis: actin helps move the materials through the cell
  • Elongation of membrane: actin helps vesicles fuse into the membrane to elongate it
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40
Q

Myosin I

A

Small motor protein that works with actin

Has 2 domains:

  • TH1 domain
  • Motor domain
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41
Q

Motor domain

A

Binds to actin

Has nucleotide binding pockets where ATP and ADP bind

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42
Q

TH1 domain

A

Binds to the vesicle/organlelle

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43
Q

Neck region

A

In between the two domains

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44
Q

Myosin I function

A
  • Membrane cytoskeleton adhesion: provides integrity to the cell
  • Endocytosis/exocytosis: in endocytosis, myosin pulls the material inwards
  • Vesicle shedding: myosin helps move cell membrane parts out of the cell (ex: mammary glands)
  • Channel gating/adaptation: helps in signal transduction (ex: hair cells)
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45
Q

Myosin V

A

Helps transport organelles and vesicles

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46
Q

Myosin V mechanism

A

ADP is bound the to the two motor domains so it’s in the waiting state. When an ATP replaces the ADP, the motor domain moves and takes a step forward and lands in the 13th actin unit. This process is repeated until finally, ATP is hydrolyzed and myosin V goes back to the waiting state

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47
Q

Microtubules

A

Made of alpha and beta tubulin.

Alpha and beta tubulin form a row called a protofilament with the help of GTP

13 protofilaments together will form a tubulin structure and this structure is tubular

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48
Q

Parts of microtubules

A

Have two ends

  • Positive end: beta tubulin on this side and GTP tubulin is added so elongation on this side
  • Negative end: alpha tubulin and GDP tubulin is here so it falls apart. Need a GTP molecule to be added here in order to keep the molecule together. This is known as catastrophe and rescue
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49
Q

Function of microtubules

A
  • Transport (this is really fast and done by microtubules since actin and myosin are too slow)
  • Helps in mitosis (organized in centrosomes)
  • Helps in cell shape
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50
Q

Microtubules associated proteins (MAPs)

A

Can be divided into:

  • Non-motor proteins
  • Motor proteins
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51
Q

Nonmotor proteins

A

Helps organize the microtubules

Have MAPI(MAPS1 and MAPS1B) and MAPS II (MAPS2 and MAPS 4 and tau)

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52
Q

MAPSII

A

Attach vesicles to the ER

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53
Q

Motor MAPS

A

Have kinesin and dyenin

Have a similar walking mechanism to myosin V and walk in opposite directions

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54
Q

Dyenin

A

Retrograde transport so goes from cell membrane to ER

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55
Q

Kinesin

A

Is anterograde transport so goes from ER to cell membrane

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56
Q

Cilia

A

Microtubules that help remove cilia in the respiratory tract. Turns like a propeller to expel material

Organized into 9+2 and have A and B tubules and connected by dyenin

Dyenin helps the cilia move very slowly in a clockwise manner

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57
Q

Flagellum

A

A long cilia that has one turning to move and the other turning in the opposite direction to move things out of the way

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58
Q

Intermediate microfilaments

A

Very string microfilaments and part of the cytoskeleton

Provide mechanical support and shape maintenance

Help connect desmosomes together

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59
Q

Structure of intermediate microfilaments

A

IFs are intertwined into a dimer to form a double helix.

2 dimers come together to form a tetramer

8 tetramers make an IF

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60
Q

Myosin

A

Anisotropic so doesn’t allow light pass through and this is why the A band is dark

Main component of thick filaments

Has three parts:

  • Head: attaches to actin
  • Neck
  • Tail
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61
Q

H zone

A

No intersection between actin and myosin so that’s why it’s light

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62
Q

Thin filaments

A

Have actin, troponin, and tropomyosin

Held in place by the Z disc

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63
Q

Thick filaments

A

Held in place by the M line

64
Q

Actin

A

Is isotopic so allows light to pass through

F-actin provides the backbone of the thick myofilament

65
Q

Tropomyosin

A

Is in the grooves of the F actin

Helps expose the actin when it’s time for contraction

66
Q

Troponin

A

Attaches to tropomyosin and made of:

  • Troponin C: high affinity for calcium
  • Troponin I: high affinity for actin
  • Troponin T: high affinity to tropomyosin
67
Q

Contraction

A

In the waiting state, ATP is bound to the myosin head

When it is hydrolyzed, myosin head begins to prepare to attach to actin

Attaches to actin and forms a cross-bridge

Inorganic phosphate is released and the myosin flocks the actin forwards

68
Q

Role of calcium

A

Calcium binds to troponin C which begins the whole process

69
Q

Muscle excitation

A

Acetylcholine is the main neurotransmitter and stimulate an action potential which allows T-tubules to allow the sarcoplasmic reticulum to allow calcium to release into the cytoplasm to allow it to bind to troponin C

When contraction is done, calcium goes back to the sarcoplasmic reticulum

70
Q

Sliding filament theory

A

The thick and thin filaments don’t change their length during contraction. They just slide over each other

71
Q

A band length in contraction…

A

Stays the same

72
Q

H band length during contraction…

A

Gets smaller and almost disappears

73
Q

I band length during contraction…

A

Become smaller

74
Q

Twitch

A

When muscle is stimulated with a single shock, it contracts and relaxes very quickly

75
Q

Graded summation of twitch

A

When one shock is given and then another, the shock is added onto the previous one to make the response higher since not all the calcium has gone jack to sarcoplasmic reticulum

76
Q

Tetanus

A

Giving a lot of stimulus one after another

Can be incomplete or complete

77
Q

Incomplete tetanus

A

There is small resting period in between but stimulation is still frequent

78
Q

Complete tetanus

A

Stimulation frequency is highly increased and almost no resting period in between

79
Q

Ideal muscle length

A

2-2.5 micrometers

80
Q

Long fibers

A

3.65 micrometers. This results in no overlap of actin and myosin so no contraction can take place

81
Q

Short fibers

A

1.65 micrometers and fibers are always overlapping so also no contraction

82
Q

Isotonic contraction

A

Length of muscle changes but force is constant

Two types

  • Concentric
  • Eccentric
83
Q

Concentric

A

Length of muscle decreases

Ex: muscle lifting

84
Q

Eccentric

A

Muscle length increases

Ex: walking downstairs

85
Q

Isometric

A

Weight of the muscle doesn’t increase but force used increases since you’re lifting up something that’s really heavy

Ex: lifting up a desk

86
Q

Motor unit

A

Motor neuron+all muscles innervated

When stimulus is low, few motor units are recruited and when stimulus is high, higher number of motor units are recruited

Motor units are recruited according to size so first small then large

87
Q

Cardiac muscle

A

Are striated and involuntary and have intercalated discs that contain tight junctions and extracellular fluid

88
Q

Cardiac muscle cells

A

Are the major cells that contain large amounts of filaments. Generate slow action potential and can’t undergo division or replacement

89
Q

Pace maker cells

A

Have small number of filaments and can make their own action potential so depolarizers spontaneously

Once an AP is made, continues for the rest of a lifetime

Found in the SA node

90
Q

Purkinje cells

A

Contain in filaments and are impulse conducting cells. Non-differentiated muscle cells that can regenerate

91
Q

Stimulation of action potential

A

First sodium enters the cell in the SA node creating a graded potential. Once threshold potential is reached, calcium enters the cell and depolarizers it. Calcium that enters induces calcium in the sarcoplasmic reticulum to be released to induce contraction. When this is done, potassium channels open and calcium goes back to the sarcoplasmic reticulum

92
Q

Propagation of AP in heart

A

Begins in the SA node and goes to the internodal pathway and the atrioventricular nodes. From the atrioventricular nodes, goes to atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His), then to atrioventricular branch, and then to purkinje fibers in the apex

93
Q

If no AP in SA node, still can generate through

A
  • Atrioventricular node
  • Atrioventricular bundle
  • Purkinje fibers
94
Q

Contraction force in cardiac muscle

A
  • Intracellular Ca concentration

- Sliding if myofilament

95
Q

Excitation in cardiac muscle

A
  • Voltage gated Ca channel

- Na/C exchanger on the lateral side

96
Q

Relaxation in cardiac muscles

A
  • Na/C exchanger on apical surface
  • Sarcolemmal Ca-ATPase
  • Sarcoreticular Ca-ATPase
97
Q

Sarcoreticular Ca-ATPase channel

A

Blocked with phospholambin so need to phosphorylates it in order to activate it

98
Q

Innervation of the heart

A

Regulated by the autonomic nervous system

Cardiac centers are in the medulla oblongata

Sympathetic trunk innervates the SA & AV nodes, heart muscles, and coronary arteries

Parasympathetic trunk inhibits SA &AV nodes through the vagus nerve

99
Q

Smooth muscles

A

Don’t have striation actin filaments are longer than those in skeletal muscles and myosin is arranged vertically

Contraction of smooth muscle helps regulate blood flow, BP, and compliance

100
Q

Contraction of smooth muscle

A

When the cell is depolarized, voltage gated Ca channels open and bind to calmodulin. The complex dephosphorylates myosin light chain kinase and phosphorylates the myosin light chain

To deactivate it, myosin light chain phosphate dephosphorylates myosin light chain. Myosin light chain is activated by dephosphorylation

101
Q

Degree of contraction in smooth muscles

A

Is activated myosin light chain kinase is more than myosin light chain phosphates, then it leads to contraction and vice versa

102
Q

Vasoconstriction

A

Activating myosin light chain kinase

Requires an elevated amount of Ca in the cytoplasm and get through two ways:

  • Bringing calcium from outside to cytoplasm
  • Bringing from sarcoplasmic reticulum to cytoplasm
103
Q

Vasodilation

A

Activating myosin light chain phosphatase

104
Q

Bringing calcium inside the cell

A
  • L type Ca channels
  • Receptor-operated channels: ligand has to bind to open
  • Mechanosensitive channels: responds to touch
  • Store-operated channels: used when Ca in sarcoplasmic reticulum is depleted and need more Ca
105
Q

Bringing calcium from sarcoplasmic reticulum to cytoplasm

A
  • IP3 receptor channels

- Ryanodine channel receptors: open by calcium-induced-calcium release

106
Q

Regulating L-type channels

A
  • AP from neighboring cells
  • Stretching of cells
  • Binding if ligand
  • Opening Ca-regulated chloride channels
  • Inhibiting K channels

By manipulating these receptors, can induce smooth muscle contraction/relaxation

Hyperpolarization/repolarization closes the channels and done by:

  • BKa: activates by Ca, NO
  • Kv: K voltage channels
  • Kir: activates during repolarization
  • KATP: inhibited by ATP and open during ischemia
107
Q

Contraction of smooth muscle with Ca-independent machanism

A

Angiotensin II binds to its receptor and relaease G12/13. This activated Rho-kinase which phosphorylates myosin light chain phosphatase making it inactive

108
Q

cAMP and cGMP

A

Help in relaxation by activating PKA and PKG which help in:

  • Inhibiting L-type receptors
  • Inhibiting Rho kinase
  • Inhibiting IP3
  • Activating K receptors
  • Getting rid of phospholambin on SERCA receptors
  • Inhibits myosin light chain kinase
109
Q

Phosphdiesterase

A

Changes cAMP and cGMP and promotes contraction is need to inhibit this

110
Q

Innervation of smooth muscle

A

Have neurotransmitter receptors and innervated by autonomic nervous system

111
Q

Varicosities

A

Bulge-like shape of neurons that release neurotransmitter

112
Q

Single unit

A

Only a couple of smooth muscles are innervated but function as one

113
Q

Multiple unit

A

Every smooth muscle is innervated and works independently

114
Q

Epithelial cells

A

Organized into sheets and are the intermediates between the lumen of body organs and blood

Function

  • Barrier to microorganisms
  • Prevent loss of water
  • Maintaining homeostasis
115
Q

Apical membrane

A

Faces the lumen

116
Q

Basolateral membrane

A

Secreted by the cells and faces the blood. Is invaginated to increase surface area to allow Na/K ATPase at the bottom (only place where Na/K ATPase is on top is the choroid plexus)

117
Q

Claudin

A

Main proteins that determine the barrier and permeability of tight junctions

118
Q

Claudin 16

A

Determine permeability of divalent cations in thick ascending loop of Henle

119
Q

Claudin 4

A

Controls permeability to Na

120
Q

Microvilli

A

Projections of the cell membrane that help increase surface area. Found in cells that need to transport large number of ions and molecules

Hey microfilaments, actin, and myosin in it but mostly actin

121
Q

Brush border

A

On proximal tubule cells and act as sensor and tubular flow

122
Q

Motile cilia

A

Help in moving things (e.g. found in respiratory tract to more mucus out of the airways). Arranged in the 9+2 configuration with an axons even connected to a basal part

123
Q

Nonmotile cilia

A

Act as mechanoreceptors and sense flow rate and tubular fluid in nephron of kidney

Also establishes left and right as symmetry of organs during embryological development

No motile proteins (actin, myosin). Arranged in a 9+0 configuration

124
Q

Nephron

A

Structure of the kidney where urine is formed. Have about a million of the, in one kidney

125
Q

Blood flow in kidneys

A

Goes to nephron through afferent arterioles and then hoes to glomerulus and then goes to efferent arterioles into peritubular capillaries

126
Q

Glomerulus

A

Place where blood is filtered. Surrounded by Bowmans capsule

127
Q

Renal vein

A

Blood collected from the nephron renal vein

128
Q

Materials traveling through nephron

A

Proximal tubule then descending thin tubule then ascending thin+thick tubules then distal tubule and then connecting segment (late distal tubule) then collecting duct

129
Q

Proximal tubule

A

Has invaginations in the basolateral membrane which increases surface area. Has brush border. Has a lot of mitochondria

Reabsorbed 2/3 of blood

130
Q

Thin descending+ascending of loop of Henle

A

Has poorly defined apical and basolateral surfaces. Low mitochondria and few invaginations if basolateral membrane

131
Q

Thick ascending loop of Henle

A

Has lots of invaginations in basolateral membrane and a lot of mitochondria

132
Q

Distal tubule

A

Have lots of invagination in basolateral surface and lots of mitochondria

133
Q

Connecting segment & colecting duct

A

Made of 2 types of cells:

  • Principal cells
  • Intercalated cells
134
Q

Principal cells

A

Are moderately invaginated and work to:

  • Reabsorb Na and secrete K
  • Help in water movement
135
Q

Intercalated cells

A

Plays a role in acid-base balance and is highly invaginated and has a lot of mitochondria

136
Q

Reabsorption/absorption

A

Moving from lumen, to apical and basolateral surface to blood

137
Q

Secretion

A

Moving from blood to basolateral and then apical surface to lumen

138
Q

Vectorial transport (paraceloular transport)

A

Transport along tight junctions of cells. All through facilitated diffusion set up by an electrochemical gradient

139
Q

K secretion and Na absorption

A

This is paraceullar transport. Na/K pump (on basolateral side) lumps in K and takes out Na. With high K, K leaves through its leaky channels on the apical side changing the membrane gradient to positive

This allows Na to enter through its channels on the apical surface and in general allows for the absorption of cations

140
Q

Transcellular transport

A

Getting through the cell by moving through the apical and then the basolateral and vice versa

One process is active and the other is passive

Uses cotransport and countertransport

141
Q

Cotransport

A

Two ions move together in the same direction. Also known as a symporter

Ex: Na-glucose, Na-K-2Cl, Na-3HCO3

142
Q

Countertransport

A

Also known as exchangers and antiporters. One molecule moves in and the other molecule moves out

Ex: Na-H exchanger, Na-protein exchanger

143
Q

Water channels

A

Also known as aquaporins that help in moving water

They are gated in plant cells so the plant cell doesn’t overflow with water

144
Q

Aquaporin 1

A

Located on the apical and basolateral surfaces of the proximal tubule and thin descending loop

145
Q

No aquaporins on…

A

Thin and thick ascending tubule

146
Q

Aquaporins 2

A

On connecting segment. Located on the apical side and is activated by an anti diuretic to reabsorb water

Also located in cortical collecting duct

147
Q

Aquaporins 3

A

Located on outer medullary collecting duct on basolateral surface

148
Q

Aquaporins 4

A

Located in basolateral side of inner medullary collecting duct

149
Q

Uniporters

A

Bring in only one molecule

150
Q

Permeability of tight junctions

A

Regulated by claudins. Proximal tubule and thin descending tube have higher permeability so have loose claudin (claudin 2)

Distal tubule and collecting duct has low permeability so have tight claudins like claiming 3,4, and 8

151
Q

Regulating epithelial transport by signals

A
  • Retrieve transporters from membrane or insert into the membrane
  • Produce new transporters
  • Change activity of transporters
152
Q

Norepeniphrines effect on epithelial transport

A

Binds to B receptors and stimulates Na and water reabsorption

153
Q

Aldosterone

A

Regulated Na levels and helps in secreting K and reabsorbed Na

154
Q

Blood flow

A

Movement of blood in vessels

155
Q

Blood flow (rate)

A

Total volume of blood that flows through a period of time (L/min)

156
Q

Velocity

A

Tells how fast the blood is moving (cm/s)

157
Q

Cardiac output

A

Total blood flow out of the heart, has to equal venous return otherwise blood will accumulate in the pulmonary or systemic circulations

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