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Spring 2014 > Physiology - Exam #1 > Flashcards

Physiology - Exam #1 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy?

A
  1. Creating
  2. Evaluating
  3. Analyzing
  4. Applying
  5. Understanding
  6. Remembering
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2
Q

What is involved in each of Bloom’s levels?

A
  • Remembering: can the student recall or remember the information;
  • Understanding: can the student explain ideas or concepts?;
  • Applying: can the student use the information in a new way?;
  • Analyzing: can the student distinguish between the different parts?;
  • Evaluating: Can the student justify a stand or decision;
  • Creating: can the student create new product or point of view?
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3
Q

What is the hierarchy of complexity within the body?

A
  1. Cells
  2. Tissues (Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, Nervous)
  3. Organs
  4. Organ Systems
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4
Q

What are the FOUR major types of tissues?

A
  • Epithelial
  • Connective
  • Muscle
  • Nervous
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5
Q

Characteristics of EPITHELIAL Tissue

A
  • Covers organs and the body;
  • Lines body cavities;
  • Lines hollow organs;
  • Have a FREE surface;
  • Apical (free) surface either outward from the skin or in the hollow area of an organ or cavity ;
  • Have a BASEMENT membrane → NONLIVING ;
  • Avascular (NO blood);;
  • Cells readily divide;
  • Cells tightly packed;
  • Cells often have desmosomes, tight junctions, or gap junctions → Side-to-side;
  • Classified according to cells SHAPE and number of cell LAYERS
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6
Q

Functions of the Epithelium

A

-Functions in PROTECTION, SECRETIONS, ABSORPTION, and EXCRETION

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7
Q

What is the epithelial basement membrane?

A

The UNDERSIDE of this tissue is anchored to connective tissue by a thin, nonliving layer

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8
Q

How is Cancer spread through the basement membrane?

A
  • By secreting a substance that dissolves basement membranes, allowing the cancer cells to invade adjacent tissue layers;
  • Cancer cells also produce fewer adhesion proteins, or none at all, which allows them to invade surrounding tissues
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9
Q

What are the types of intercellular junctions?

A
  • Tight;
  • Desmosomes;
  • Gap
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10
Q

Tight junctions

A

-Close space between cells by fusing cell membranes;

EX: Cells that line the inside of the small intestine

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11
Q

Desmosomes

A

-Bind cells by forming “spot welds” between cell membranes;

EX: Cells of the outer skin

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12
Q

Gap Junctions

A

FOrm tubular channels between cells that allow substances to be exchanged;
EX: Muscle cells of the heart and digestive tract — allow electrical conductivity

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13
Q

What are Carcinomas?

A

-Over 90% of human cancers are CARCINOMAS – which are outgrowths that originate in an epithelium;
-Most begin on surfaces that contact the EXTERNAL environment, such as:
oSkin
oLining of airways of the respiratory tract
oLining of the stomach or intestines
oSuggests that the more common cancer-causing agents may not penetrate tissues very deeply

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14
Q

What is the Glandular Epithelium?

A
  • Composed of cells that are specialized to produce and secrete substances into ducts or into body fluids;
  • Such cells are usually found within columnar or cuboidal epithelium, and one or more of these cells constitutes a GLAND
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15
Q

EXOCRINE Glands

A
  • Glands that secrete their products into ducts that open onto some internal or external SURFACE;
  • EXOCRINE gland may consist of a SINGLE epithelial cell (unicellular gland → ex. Goblet cells), or it may be composed of many cells (multicellular gland)
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16
Q

ENDOCRINE Glands

A

Glands that secrete their products into INTERSTITIAL FLUID or BLOOD

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17
Q

What are theTWO types of Multicellular Glands?

A
  • SIMPLE gland communicates with the surface by means of an unbranched duct;
  • COMPOUND gland has a branched duct
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18
Q

Tubular Glands

A

Glands that consist of epithelial-lines tubes

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19
Q

Alveolar (acinar) glands

A

Glands whose terminal portions form saclike dilations → Bubble-like end

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20
Q

What are most EXOCRINE Secretory Cells?

A
  • MEROCRINE, and they can be further subdivided:
    1. Serous cells = secretion is typically watery, has a high concentration of enzymes, and is called serous fluid → Common in the linings of body cavities;
    2. Mucus Cells = secrete a thicker fluid mucus; this substance is rich in the glycoprotein mucin and is abundantly secreted from the inner linings of the digestive and respiratory systems
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21
Q

What are the Methods of Glandular Secretion?

A
  1. Merocrine;
  2. Apocrine;
  3. Holocrine
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22
Q

Merocrine Glands

A

-Secretion is a FLUID PRODUCT released through the cell membrane by exocytosis;
Ex. – Salivary glands, pancreatic glands, sweat glands of the skin

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23
Q

Apocrine Glands

A

-CELLULAR PRODUCT and portions of the free ends of glandular cells pinch off during secretion;
Ex. - Mammary glands, ceruminous glands lining the external ear canal (secrete ear wax)

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24
Q

Holocrine Glands

A

-Entire cells laden with SECRETORY PRODUCTS disintegrate;

Ex. – Sebaceous glands of the skin

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25
Q

Characteristics of CONNECTIVE Tissue

A
  • Most abundant tissue by weight;
  • Further apart that epithelial cells;
  • Lots of intercellular material (MATRIX) between;
  • Cells usually divide;
  • Varying degrees of vascularity;
  • Bone/cartilage are rigid;
  • Loose connective tissue (areolar), adipose tissue, and dense connective tissue are more variable
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26
Q

What are the major Connective Tissue cell types?

A
  1. FIXED cells are usually present in stable numbers;

2. WANDERING cells temporarily appear in tissues, usually in response to an injury or infection

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27
Q

Types of FIXED cells

A
  1. Fibroblast – the most common kind of fixed cell in connective tissue; it produces fibers by secreting protein into the matrix of connective tissue;
  2. Mast cell – are large and widely distributed in connective tissue, where they are usually located near blood vessels
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28
Q

What is released by Mast Cells?

A
  • Heparin – a compound that prevents blood clotting;
  • Histamine – a substance that promotes some of the reactions associated with inflammation and allergies, such as asthma and hay fever
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29
Q

Types of Wandering Cells

A
  • Macrophages – or histocytes originate as white blood cells and are almost as numerous as fibroblasts in connective tissue;
  • Usually attached to fibers but can detach and actively move about. They function as scavenger cells that can clear foreign particles from tissues making them an important defense against infection;
  • Also play a role in immunity → Transfer antigens!
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30
Q

What is Histamine?

A
  • Release of histamine stimulates INFLAMMATION by dilating the small arterioles that feed capillaries;
  • Resulting SWELLING and REDNESS is inhospitable to infectious bacteria and viruses and also dilutes toxins;
  • INAPPROPRIATE histamine release as part of an allergic response can be most uncomfortable;
  • Allergy medications called ANTIHISTAMINES counter this misplaced inflammation
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31
Q

What are the types of fibers produced by FIBROBLASTS (fixed connective)?

A
  1. Collagenous fibers;
  2. Elastic fibers;
    - 3. Reticular Fibers
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32
Q

Collagenous Fibers (Connective)

A
  • Abundant – thick threads of the protein collagen (major structural protein);
  • Grouped into long, parallel bundles, and they are flexible but only slightly elastic → Bend, DO NOT STRETCH;
  • Great tensile strength; they can resist considerable pulling force;
  • Important components of body parts that hold structures together, such as ligaments and tendons
  • Ligaments – connectives bones to joints;
  • Tendons – form a sheath around the bone to connect them to the joint
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33
Q

What are the varying amounts of Collagenous fibers?

A
  • Tissue containing ABUNDANT collagenous fibers is called DENSE connective tissue; is it white and sometimes called white fibers;
  • LOOSE connective tissue, on the other hand, has SPARSE collagenous fibers
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34
Q

How does Connective Tissue change over time?

A
  • When skin is exposed to prolonged and intense sunlight, connective tissue fibers lose elasticity, and the skin stiffens and becomes leathery;
  • In time, the skin may sag and wrinkle;
  • Collagen injections may temporarily smooth out wrinkles;
  • However, collagen applied as a cream to the skin does not combat wrinkles because collagen molecules are far too large to actually penetrate the skin
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35
Q

Elastic Fibers (Connective)

A
  • Abundant – are composed of bundles of microfibrils embedded in a protein called ELASTIN;
  • Fibers branch, forming complex networks in various tissues;
  • WEAKER than collagenous fibers but very elastic;
  • Elastic fibers are common in body parts that are normally subjected to stretching, such as the vocal cords and air passages of the respiratory system;
  • Elastic fibers are sometimes called YELLOW FIBERS, because tissues amply supplied with them appear yellowish
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36
Q

What is ELASTIN (from elastic fibers)?

A
  • Elastin is used in foam, powder, or sheet form to prevent scar tissue adhesions from forming at the sites of tissue removal;
  • Elastin is produced in BACTERIA that are genetically altered to contain human genes that instruct them to manufacture it — Cheaper than synthesizing elastin chemically and safer than obtaining it from cadavers
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37
Q

Reticular Fibers (Connective)

A
  • Very thin collagenous fibers;

- Highly BRANCHED and form delicate supporting networks in a variety of tissues

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38
Q

What are the types of Connective TISSUES?

A
  1. Connective Tissue PROPER ;

2. SPECIALIZED Connective Tissue

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39
Q

Connective Tissue PROPER

A
  1. Loose connective tissue;
  2. adipose tissue;
  3. reticular connective tissu3;
  4. Dense connective tissue;
  5. Elastic connective tissue
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40
Q

SPECIALIZED Connective Tissue

A
  1. cartilage;
  2. bone;
  3. blood
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41
Q

Loose Connective Tissue

Connective Proper

A
  • Loose Connective or areolar tissue forms delicate, thin membranes throughout the body;
  • Fibroblasts are located some distance apart and are separated by a gel-like ground substance that contains many collagenous and elastic fibers that fibroblasts secrete;
  • Loose connective tissue binds the skin to the underlying organs and fills spaces between underlying muscles;
  • Beneath most layers of epithelium, where its many blood vessels nourish nearby epithelial cells
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42
Q

Adipose Connective Tissue

Connective Proper

A
  • Fat;
  • Adipocytes – certain cells within connective tissue, store fat droplets in their cytoplasm;
  • At first, these cells resemble fibroblasts, but as they accumulate fat, they enlarge, and their nuclei are pushed to one side;
  • A lot of adipocytes crowd out other cell types and form adipose tissue;
  • Born with a certain number of fat cells;
  • Amount of adipose tissue in the body reflects DIET or an ENDOCRINE DISORDER
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43
Q

What are the functions of Adipose?

A
  • Lies beneath the skin, in spaces between muscles, around the kidneys, behind the eyeballs, in certain abdominal membranes, on the surface of the heart, and around certain joints;
  • Cushions certain joints and some organs such as the kidneys;
  • Insulates beneath the skin, and it stores energy in fat molecules
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44
Q

Bone

Specialized Connective

A
  • Bone is the most RIGID connective tissue;
  • Hardness is largely due to mineral salts, such as calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate, in its matrix;
  • Intercellular material also contains a great amount of collagen, whose fibers flexibly reinforce the mineral components of bone;
  • Bone internally supports body structures;
  • Contains red marrow, which forms blood cells, and it stores and releases inorganic salts
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45
Q

What is the structure of the Bone MATRIX?

A
  • Supported by bone cells, OSTEOCYTES, in thin layers called LAMALLAE, which form concentric patterns around capillaries located within tiny;
  • -Osteocytes are located in LACUNAE (cavities) that are rather evenly spaced between the lamellae
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46
Q

What is an OSTEON?

A

In a bone, the osteocytes and layers of intercellular material, which is concentrically clustered around a central canal, form a cylinder-shaped unit called an OSTEON, or Haversian System;
**Osteon = Osteocyte + Layers

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47
Q

How are nutrients supplied throughout the bone?

A
  • Each central canal contains a blood vessel, so every bone cell is fairly close to a nutrient supply;
  • Osteocytes have many cytoplasmic processes that extend outward and pass through minute tubes in the matrix called CANALICULI;
  • Gap junctions attach these cellular processes to the membranes of nearby cells;
  • Injured bone heals more rapidly than injured cartilage because of the proximity of blood vessels and osteocytes → Closer to nutrients in blood causing quicker healing
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48
Q

Cartilage

Specialized Connective

A

RIGID connective tissue:;

  • Provides support, frameworks, attachments, protects underlying tissues, and forms structural models for many developing bones;
  • Cartilage matrix is abundant and largely composed of collagenous fibers embedded in a gel-like ground substance
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49
Q

What is the ground substance of the Collagen Matrix?

A
  • The ground substance is rich in a protein-polysaccharide complex (chondromucoprotein) and contains a large amount of water;
  • Cartilage cells, or chondrocytes, occupy small chambers called lacunae and thus lie completely within the matrix
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50
Q

What is the Perichondrium?

A

-A cartilaginous structure is enclosed in a covering of connective tissue = Perichondrium;

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51
Q

What are the THREE types of Cartilage?

A
  1. Hyaline;
  2. Elastic;
  3. FIbrocartilage
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52
Q

Hyaline Cartilage

A
  • Most common type, looks somewhat like white glass;
  • Found on the ends of bones in many joints, in the soft part of the nose, and in the supporting rings of the respiratory passages
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53
Q

Elastic Cartilage

A
  • More flexible than hyaline cartilage because its matrix contains many elastic fibers;
  • Provides the framework for the external ears and parts of the larynx.
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54
Q

Fibrocartilage

A
  • Very tough tissue, contains many collagenous fibers;
  • Shock absorber for structures that are subjected to pressure;
  • Fibrocartilage forms pads (intervertebral discs) between the individual bones (vertebrae) of the spinal column;
  • Intervertebral discs shrink as people age → Loss of height ;
  • Also cushions bones in the knees and in the pelvic girdle
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55
Q

Blood

Specialized Connective

A
  • Blood is composed of cells that are suspended in a fluid intercellular matrix called PLASMA;
  • These cells include:
    1. Red blood cells = Erythrocytes
    2. White Blood Cells = Leukocytes3. Blood platelets = Thrombocytes = cellular fragments
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56
Q

Where are blood cells made and function?

A
  • Most blood cells form in special tissue = Hematopoietic tissue;
  • In RED marrow within the HOLLOW parts of certain bones;
  • Red marrow is found in almost all bones of a baby, but disappears from bones of the body with age ;
  • ONLY the red blood cells function entirely within the blood vessels;
  • White blood cells typically move from the blood through capillary walls;
  • Platelets leave the blood vessels when they are damaged
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57
Q

Characteristics of MUSCLE Tissue

A
  • Due to their elongated shape, the cells in muscle tissues are called muscle fibers → Fibers are composed of MYOSIN and ACTIN;
  • Fibers are CONTRACTILE, they can shorten and thicken;
  • As they contract, muscle cells pull at their attached ends, which move body parts;
  • THREE types of muscle tissue
    1. Skeletal = striated = voluntary
    2. Smooth = involuntary;
    3. Cardiac) = striated = involuntary
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58
Q

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

A
  • Muscles that usually attach to bones and they are controlled by conscious effort;
  • 90% of muscle mass;
  • LONG – up to > 40 mm in length – and narrow - < 0.1 mm in width;
  • Alternating light and dark cross- markings called STRIATIONS
  • Multinucleated ( many nuclei) → ONLY CELLS that are MULTINUCLEATED
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59
Q

How do Skeletal Muscles move?

A
  • A message from a nerve cell can stimulate a muscle cell to contract by causing protein filaments within the muscle cell to slide past each other → Sliding Filament Hypothesis ;
  • Skeletal muscles move the head, trunk, and limbs and enable us to make facial expressions, write, talk, and sing, as well as chew, swallow, and breath
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60
Q

Smooth Muscle Tissue

A

-Lacks striations;
-Shorter than those of skeletal muscle and are spindle-shaped, each with a single, centrally located nucleus;
-NOT STRIATED with a ratio of actin to myosin of 16:1 → NOT the 2:1 of smooth abd cardiac striated muscle;
-Actin is connected to dense bodes;
-Comprises the walls of hollow internal organs, such as the stomach, intestines, urinary bladder, uterus, and blood vessels;
-NOT stimulated to contract by conscious effort; actions are INVOLUNTARY;
Ex., smooth muscle tissue moves food through the digestive tract (peristalsis), constricts blood vessels (vasoconstriction), and empties the urinary bladder

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61
Q

Cardiac Muscle Tissue

A

ONLY in the heart;

  • Striated cells joined end-to-end;
  • Branched and interconnected in complex networks;
  • SINGLE NUCLEUS;;
  • Where one cell touches another cell is a specialized intercellular junction, called an INTERCALATED DISC (gap junctions), seen in cardiac muscle and single motor unit smooth muscle
  • Involuntary and can continue to function without being stimulated by nerve impulses (AUTOMOTICITY)
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62
Q

How do muscle cells divide?

A
  • Vary greatly in their abilities to divide. ;
  • SKELETAL and CARDIAC muscle cells and NERVE cells (neurons) DO NOT usually divide at all after differentiating;
  • Fibroblasts respond rapidly to injuries by increasing in number and fiber production
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63
Q

How do Fibroblasts repair injuries?

A
  • They are often the principal agents of repair in tissues that have limited abilities to regenerate;
  • For instance, cardiac muscle tissue, typically degenerates in the regions damaged by a heart attack;
  • Fibroblasts then, over time, knit connective tissue that replaces the damaged cardiac muscle;
  • A scar is formed
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64
Q

Nervous Tissue

A
  • Found in the brain and spinal cord;
  • Basic cells are neurons;
  • Neurological cells are supporting cells;
  • Sensory reception;
  • Conduction of nerve impulses;
  • Cell types = Neurons, Glial Cells, and Sensory Receptors
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65
Q

What are Neurons?

A

conduct action potentials

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66
Q

What are Glial Cells?

A

Support Cells =

  • Schwann cells;
  • Oligodendrocytes
  • Satellite cells;
  • Astrocytes;
  • Microglia;
  • Ependyma
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67
Q

Schwann Cells

A

-Myelin sheaths around PERIPHERAL axons

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68
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A
  • Shaped like astrocytes but with fewer cellular processed and occur in rows along axons;
  • Myelin sheaths around CNS axons;
  • Produce nerve growth factors
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69
Q

Satellite cells

A

ganglionic gliocytes

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70
Q

Astrocytes

A
  • Star-shaped cells between neurons and blood vessels;
  • Regulate passage of molecules from the blood to the brain;
  • Structural, form scar tissue, transports between vessels and neurons;
  • Communication between each other and neurons;
  • Pick up excess ions and neurotransmitter;
  • Induce synapses
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71
Q

Microglial cells

A
  • Small cells with few cellular processes and found throughout the CNS:
  • Phagocytic ameboid cells in CNS (immunity)
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72
Q

Ependyma

A
  • Cuboidal and columnar cells in the inner lining of the ventricles of the brain and central canal of the spinal cord;
  • Cover tufts of capillaries to form the choroid plexus;
  • Form a porous layer for substances to diffuse between interstitial fluid of the brain and spinal cord and cerebrospinal fluid
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73
Q

What is Homeostasis?

A
  • The maintenance of extracellular fluid under constant conditions;
  • Most control systems function on the basis of negative feedback control
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74
Q

Set Point Body Temp

A

Normally, the temperature of deeper body parts remains close to a SET POINT of 37oC (98.6oF) → Can be variation around the set point from person to person

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Perfectly
75
Q

What is Heat?

A
  • Byproduct of cellular metabolism;
  • Respiration is about 2/3 efficient, remaining energy found in the bonds of glucose that are released upon breakdown are released as HEAT;
  • Inefficient mitochondria release the heat making us Endotherms and maintain a set body temp
76
Q

What are the means of Body Heat LOSS?

A
  1. Radiation;
  2. Conduction;
  3. Convection;
  4. Evaporation
    * Conduction and Convection release LESS heat
77
Q

Radiation

A

primary means – infrared heat rays escape from warmer surfaces to cooler surroundings

78
Q

Conduction

A

heat moves from the body directly into the molecules of cooler objects in contact with its surface (solids and liquids)

79
Q

Convection

A

continuous circulation of air over a warm surface (body)

80
Q

Evaporation

A

conversion of sweat from a liquid to a gaseous phase carries heat away from the surface, cooling the skin; high relative humidity of water vapor retards evaporative cooling; athletes are advised to slow down their activities on hot, humid days

81
Q

Nonshivering Thermogenesis

A
  • If the body temperature continues to drop, the nervous system may stimulate muscle cells in the skeletal muscles throughout the body to contract slightly;
  • Requires an increase in the rate of cellular respiration and release of heat as a byproduct
82
Q

Shivering Thermogenesis

A

If non shivering response does not raise the body temperature to normal, small groups of muscles may contract rhythmically with still greater force, causing the person to shiver

83
Q

Hyperthermia

A

RISE in body temperature above normal;

  • Causes = environmental, exercise, and fever;
  • High RH – sweat can’t evaporate quickly
84
Q

Hypothermia

A
  • LOWERED body temp can result from prolonged exposure to coldness or illness;
  • Begins with shivering, and a feeling of coldness, but if not treated progresses to mental confusion, lethargy, loss of reflexes and consciousness, and even the shutting down of major organs;
  • If the temperature of the body core DROPS just a few degrees, fatal respiratory failure or heart arrhythmia may result
85
Q

Who is more at risk for Hypothermia?

A
  • Very young
  • Very old
  • Very thin
  • Homeless
86
Q

When is Hypothermia done on purpose?

A
  • Intentionally induced during certain surgical procedures involving the heart or central nervous system; pack patient in ice or remove blood, cool it, and return it to the body;
  • Heart surgery – body temperature is cooled to 26 – 32oC
87
Q

What is an Organ?

A

a structure in the body composed of two or more primary tissues that performs a specific function

88
Q

What is an Organ System?

A

a number of organs functioning together in an integrated fashion

89
Q

Characteristics of the SKIN and INTEGUMENTARY System

A
  • Composed of several tissues;
  • Maintains homeostasis;
  • Protective covering;
  • Retards water loss;
  • Regulates body temperature;
  • Houses sensory receptors → Touch, heat, etc;
  • Contains immune system cells;
  • Synthesizes chemicals;
  • Excretes small amounts of waste → Primarily urea (protein metabolism)
90
Q

Layers of the skin

A
  1. Epidermis (distinct)
  2. Dermis (distinct)
  3. Subcutaneous layer
91
Q

Epidermis Skin Layer

A
  • OUTER = composed of stratified squamous epithelium;

- Basement membrane = anchored to the dermis by short fibrils separates the two skin layers

92
Q

Dermis Skin Layer

A
  • INNER = thicker than the epidermis and is made up of connective tissue containing collagen and elastic fibers, epithelial tissue, smooth muscle tissue, nervous tissue, and blood;
  • Contains the capillaries and veins of the Rete Cutanuem
93
Q

Subcutaneous Skin Layer

A
  • Somewhat diffuse, not as distinct);

- Located BENEATH the DERMIS → masses of loose connective and adipose tissues that bind the skin to underlying organs

94
Q

Characteristics of the EPIDERMIS Layer

A
  • LACKS blood vessels
  • Keratinized
  • Thicket on PALMS and SOLES (0.8-1.4mm)
  • Melanocytes provide melanin;
  • Rests on basement membrane ;
  • Stratified squamous
95
Q

Melanocytes

A

Specialized cells that are the ONLY ones that produce protective pigment Melanin; Have fingerlike process that secrete the melain pigment into nearby squamous cells and take on that pigment

96
Q

Layers of the Epidermis

A
  1. stratum corneum – many layers of tough, tightly packed and keratinized dead cells – eventually shed
  2. stratum lucidum – additional thickened skin layer of the palms and soles
  3. stratum granulosum - a granular layer
  4. stratum spinosum – a thick layer
  5. stratum basale – deepest layer; nourished by dermal blood vessels so the cells can divide and grow → Innermost layer and ONLY one that undergoes MITOTIC DIVISION
97
Q

Calluses

A

Growth of thickened areas where skin is rubbed pr pressed regularly due to increased rate of cell division

98
Q

Corns

A

keratinized conical masses on the toes created from the increased rate of cell division from repeated rubbing and pressing of skin

99
Q

Melanin

A
  • dark pigment melanin that provides skin color produced by melanocytes;.
  • Melanin absorbs ultraviolet radiation in sunlight, preventing mutations in the DNA of skin cells and other damaging effects
100
Q

Solar Erythema

A

Acute Sunburn;

  • –an INFLAMMATORY reaction of the skin to excessive exposure to UV radiation in sunlight;
  • Treatment for acute sunburn – frequent cool baths with oatmeal or baking soda added to soothe;
  • To AVOID sunburn, stay out of the sun from 10AM to 3PM and apply sunblock of at least SPF 15, even on a cloudy day;
  • Tanning lotions, reflectors, sunlamps, or tanning booths may pose a risk of sunburn
101
Q

What is Apoptosis?

A

-Programmed cell death;

EX: Peeling → PREVENTS CANCER from developing after a sunburn

102
Q

What happens as the skin is exposed to more and more sun?

A
  • Continued sun exposure leads to tanning, as specialized skin cells produce MORE melanin pigment;
  • At the same time, the STRATUM CORNEUM thickens;
  • Over time, sun overexposure hastens wrinkling and may produce a leathery feel as the skin loses elasticity
103
Q

How does Sun Exposure effect the skin cells?

A
  • Melanocytes lie in the DEEPEST portion of the epidermis, and in the surrounding connective tissue of the dermis;
  • ONLY melanocytes can produce melanin but the pigment may also be present in nearby epidermal cells because melanocytes have long, pigment-containing cellular extensions that pass upward between neighboring epidermal cells;
  • Melanin granules are transferred into other cells by CYTOCRINE SECRETION;
  • Nearby neighboring cells may contain more melanin than the melanocytes = STORE it;
  • One consequence of excessive sun exposure is SKIN CANCER
104
Q

How does Skin Cancer occur?

A
  • Begins when UV radiation causes mutation in the DNA of a skin cell;
  • People who inherit the very rare condition XERODERMA PIGMENTOSUM are very prone to developing skin cancer because they lack DNA repair enzymes → CANNOT FIX damaged DNA;
  • Most skin cancer occurs in NONpigmented epithelial cells;
  • Can sometimes occur in melanocytes
105
Q

What are Cutaneous Carcinomas?

A
  • Skin cancer usually arises from NONPIGMENTED epithelial cells within the deep layer of the epidermis or from pigmented melanocytes;
  • Skin cancers originating from epithelial cells are called CUTANEOUS CARCINOMAS (basal cell carcinoma or squamous cell carcinoma);
  • *Most common type of skin cancer – slow growing and can usually be cured;
  • Often develops from a hard, dry, scaly growth with a reddish base
106
Q

What are Cutaneous Melanomas?

A
  • Skin cancers originating from melanocytes are CUTANEOUS MELANOMAS;
  • Pigmented with melanin, often with a variety of colored areas – variegated brown, black, gray, or blue;
  • Light skinned people who burn not tan;
  • People of any age;
  • Caused by short, intermittent exposure to high intensity sunlight ;
  • Surgical removal during the horizontal growth phase can stop;
  • Once the lesion thickens and spreads into deeper tissues, it becomes more difficult to treat, and the survival rate is very low
107
Q

Characteristics of the DERMIS Layer

A
  • On average 1.0-2.0mm thick ;
  • Dermal papillae;
  • Binds epidermis to underlying tissues;
  • Irregular dense connective tissue;
  • Muscle cells;
  • Nerve cell processes;
  • Blood vessels;
  • Hair follicles;
  • Glands
108
Q

What are the Conical papillae of the Dermis?

A
  • Projections from the dermis that pass into the spaces of the inwards ridges of the epidermis;
  • Forms the uneven boundary between the epidermis and dermis;
  • Fingerprints form from these undulations of the skin at the distal end of the palmer surface of the finger (genetically determined)
109
Q

Thickness of the Dermis layer

A

On average the dermis is:

  • 1.0 -2.0 mm thick
  • 0.5 mm or less on the eyelids
  • 3.0 mm on soles of feet
110
Q

What is the Dermis layer composed of?

A
  • Composed of irregular dense connective tissue that includes collagenous fibers and elastic fibers in a gel-like ground substance;
  • Muscle fibers;
  • Nerves cells;
  • *Blood vessels, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, sweat glands
111
Q

Muscle Fibers of the Dermis

A
  • Scrotum – smooth muscle wrinkle the skin when contract;
  • Associated with accessory organs such as hair follicles and glands;
  • Many skeletal muscle fibers are anchored to the dermis in the skin of the face
112
Q

Nerves Cell Processes of the Dermis

A
  • Scattered throughout the dermis – sensory receptors;
  • Pacinian corpuscles –heavy pressure;
  • Meissner’s corpuscles – light touch;
  • Temperature changes;
  • Tissue damage
113
Q

Characteristics of the Subcutaneous Layer

A
  • Hypodermis;
  • Loose connective tissue;
  • Adipose tissue = Insulates by conservation and preventing the entrance of heat;
  • Major blood vessels supply skin;
  • Vessel branches form a network (RETE CUTANEUM) between dermis subcutaneous layer
114
Q

What are the Accessory Organs of the Skin?

A

-Hair follicles;
-Nails;
-Skin glands = Sebaceous glands and Sweat glands;
(Sweat glands = Eccrine glands and Apocrine glands)

115
Q

What is a Hair Follicle?

A
  • Each hair develops from a group of epidermal cells at the base of a TUBELIKE DEPRESSION called a hair follicle;
  • Each hair follicle also has associated with it one or more SEBACEOUS (oil-producing) glands
116
Q

What is a Hair Root?

A
  • The portion of hair embedded in the skin;

- The follicle extends from the surface into the dermis and contains the hair root

117
Q

What is a Hair Papilla?

A
  • Projection of connective tissue (hair papilla) at the deep end of the follicle that nourishes epidermal cells are the base of the follicle through dermal blood vessels;
  • Where mitotic division takes place and gives rise to the hair
118
Q

What is the Hair Shaft?

A

Remains of the keratinized and dead epidermal cells that extend away from the skin forming a hair

119
Q

What are the differences in hair color?

A
  • *Genes determine hair color by directing the type and amount of pigment that epidermal melanocytes produce
    1. Dark hair –much more melanin than blond hair;
    2. White hair with the inherited condition albinism lacks melanin;
    3. Bright RED hair contains the IRON PIGMENT TRICHOSIDERIN that is not in hair of any other color
120
Q

What is the Arretor Pili Muscle?

A

A bundle of SMOOTH MUSCLE CELLS attaches to each hair follicle → if a person is upset or cold, nerve impulses may stimulate this muscle to contract, raising goose bumps

121
Q

What is Folliculitis?

A
  • INFLAMMATION of the hair follicles in response to bacterial infection;
  • More common in MEN where it is associated with SHAVING;
  • Woman – repeatedly using a loofah sponge containing bacteria
122
Q

What are the Inherited Hair Characteristics?

A
  • Cowlick – direction; clockwise swirl is more common;
  • White forelock;
  • Hairy ears, elbows, nose tip, or palms
123
Q

How do hairs grow?

A
  • A hair typically grows for TWO to SIX YEARS, rests for two to three months, then FALLS OUT;
  • A new hair grows in its place;
  • At any time, 90% of hair is in the growth phase;
  • Sometimes may not be replied leading to baldness (57.5 million in the US)
124
Q

What is Pattern Baldness?

A
  • *Top of the head loses hair, affects =
  • 35 million MEN – associated with testosterone – androgenic alopecia;
  • 20 million WOMEN – past menopause – lowered estrogen;
  • Alopecia areata – 2.5 million people – inherited – AUTOIMMUNE
125
Q

What causes TEMP hair loss?

A
  • Lowered estrogen levels shortly before and after birth;
  • Birth control pills, cough medications, certain antibiotics, vitamin A derivatives, antidepressants;
  • Sustained high fever
126
Q

How is hair loss treated?

A
  1. Minoxidil (Rogaine) – causes new hair to grow in 10-14% of cases but it slows hair loss in 90% of cases; stop taking it and any new hair falls out;
  2. Hair transplants move hair follicles from a hairy part of a person’s bodyto a bald part – successful;
  3. Potentially damaging to the scalp = Suturing on hair pieces;
  4. Thinning hair supplements are merely conditioners → merely make hair FEEL thicker
127
Q

Components of a Hair Follicle?

A
  • Epidermal cells;
  • Tube-like depression;
  • Extends into dermis;
  • Hair root → portion of the hair embedded into the skin;
  • Hair shaft → Extends away from the surface of the skin;
  • Hair papilla → Projection of connective tissue containing dermal blood vessels at the deep end of the follicle that help nourish the base epidermal cells ;
  • Dead epidermal cells → Outer layer is dead creating a protective, waterproof coating ;
  • Melanin → Protective pigment ;
  • Arrector pili muscle → bundle of smooth muscles attached to the hair follicle; can contract causing goose bumps
128
Q

What are Nails?

A
  • Protective coverings on the ends of fingers and toes;
  • Each nail consists of a NAIL PLATE that overlies a surface of skin called the NAIL BED;
  • Specialized epithelial cells that are continuous with the epithelium of the skin produce the nail bed
129
Q

What is the Lunula of the Nail?

A
  • The whitish, thickened, half moon-shaped region (lunula) at the base of the nail plate is the most active growing region;
  • The epithelial cells here DIVIDE, and the newly formed cells are KERATINIZED;
  • Gives rise to tiny keratinized scales that become part of the nail plate, pushing forward over the nail bed;
  • In time, the plate extends beyond the nail bed and with normal use gradually wears away
130
Q

Bluish Nails

A

may reflect a circulation problem

131
Q

White Nail bed or Oval Depressions in a nail

A

may indicate anemia

132
Q

Horizontal Furrows of the Nail

A

may result from a period of serious illness or may indicate malnutrition

133
Q

Extreme Curvature of the nails

A

Certain disorders of the lungs, heart, or liver

134
Q

Red Streaks in Non-Injured Nails

A

may be traced to rheumatoid arthritis, ulcers, or hypertension

135
Q

What is the Cell Protoplasm?

A

The different substances that make up the cell fluid :
-Water – HOH → About 92%
-Electrolytes – Na+, Cl-, Ca++, etc. → Charged
- Biochemical Substrates=
oProteins – amino acids
oLipids – Neutral fats, sterols, phospholipids
oCarbohydrates – monosaccharides
oNucleic acids- phosphate group, pentose sugar, nitrogen base

136
Q

What is the Cell Membrane?

A

-Described by the Fluid Mosaic Model (Singer and Nicholson);
-Line all physical stuctures;
-Mostly lipids and proteins;
EX: Cell, nuclear, mitochondrial, ER, and Golgi have membranes

137
Q

What is the Lipid BIilayer of Cell Membranes?

A
  • Thin film of lipids 2 molecules thick;
  • Contains large globular proteins;
  • Impermeable to water and water-solubles;
  • Fat-soluble are permeable (O2, CO2, alcohol, steroids);
  • Lipid FLUID, not solid
138
Q

What are the types of membrane proteins?

A
  • Most are Glycoproteins (carb attached);

- Integral and Peripheral Protains

139
Q

Integral Proteins

A

Penetrate THOUGH the membrane;

Path for water and ions to pass

140
Q

Peripheral Proteins

A

Attached to the SURFACE of the membrane;

  • Almost always attached to an integral protein;
  • Mostly enzymatic function
141
Q

What the Cell Membrane Carbohydrates?

A
  • Occur in combo with proteins (glycoproteins) and lipids (glycoplipids);
  • Entire surface of cells usually has loose carb covering = Glycocalyx
142
Q

What are the functions of the Glycocalyx?

A
  • Carry a net negative charge - repels other charges;
  • Some adjacent cells attached - desmosomes;
  • Receptors for binding hormones (insulin and other peptides);
  • Some immune reactions (antigenic)
143
Q

What is the Cytosol?

A

Clear fluid of the cytoplasm;

-Contains proteins, electrolytes, glucose., phospholipids, cholesterol and esterified fatty acids

144
Q

What are the dispersed particles found in the cytoplasm?

A
  • Neutral fats;
  • Glycogen granules;
  • RIbosomes;
  • Secretory granules
145
Q

What percent of the world is under or malnourished?

A

20-60%

146
Q

Ingestion

A

Taking food in by mouth

147
Q

Digestion

A

simplification of food by chemical and physical means into smaller molecules for the absorption of materials

148
Q

Absorption

A

movement of simplified food molecules from the lumen of the GI tract into the blood and lymph

149
Q

Transportation

A

Sytem of carrying food from the site of digestion and absorption to the cells of the body per FUSION

150
Q

Assimilation

A

incorporation of food into protoplasm of the cell (either stored or used for energy);
Much of the food ingested is stored for a period of time

151
Q

Excretion

A

Voiding of metabolic waste through the skin, lungs, intestines, and kidneys

152
Q

Egestion

A

Food products that are NOT absorbed but are passed on by the GI tract and EGESTED as feces

153
Q

What is the role of the digestive tract

A
  • Ingest, digest and absorb food into the blood and lymph for transport around the body;
  • Almost entirely extracellular;
  • Long tube from mouth to anus that is compartmentalized anatomically and functionally
154
Q

What makes up the Digestive System?

A 
Mouth;
Pharynx;
Esophagus;
Stomach (duodenum, jéjunum, ileum);
LI;
Rectum;
Anus
155
Q

What 3 organs or sets of glands help digestion?

A
  1. Salivary Glands = Sublingual, Submandibular, Paratoid;
  2. Liver
  3. Pancreas = several digestive and intestinal enzymes
156
Q

What is the anatomical composition of the Alimentary Tract (GI tract) from OUT to IN

A
  1. Out = Serosa;
  2. Muscle layer = smooth;
  3. Submucosa
  4. Very inner = Mucosa
157
Q

What increases the area of the SI?

A
  1. Folded intestinal mucosa — Plicae circulares (large circular folds all the way around) = 3x;
  2. Villi — 1mm above mucosal surface by the millions = 10x
  3. Brush border microvilli — 20x
    Total = 3x10x20 = 600 times increases = 250 sq. meters of SI
158
Q

Digestion in the MOUTH

A
  1. Teeth reduce food size;
  2. Saliva mixed
  3. Bolus or ball formed
  4. Tongue pushes bolus and liquids to pharynx
  5. HYPOPHARYNGEAL SPHINCTER contracts
  6. Saliva secreted by salivary gland
159
Q

Functions of Saliva in the Body

A
  1. Helps form bolus for swallowing
  2. Contains alpha-amylase enzyme (ptyalin)
  3. Helps taste
  4. Cleans mouth/teeth
  5. Contains lysozyme with digests bacterial walls
  6. Excretory medium for I, Hg, Pb, thiocynate, urea and some other organic subs
    * *1000-1500mL of saliva per day
160
Q

Functions of Amylase

A
  1. Breaks down starch — dextrins — maltose (disacch)
  2. Most activity only takes place in first 15-30 mins
  3. Inactivated in the stomach by low pH (2-3) = denatured
161
Q

Sublingual Gland (salivary)

A

duct opens below the anterior portion of tongue via duct of Barthalia

162
Q

Submandibular Gland (salivary)

A

posterior to sublingual; below the anterior part of the tongue;
Whartons duct

163
Q

Parotid Gland (salivary)

A

angle of the jaw = front of ear;

  • Stensons duct;
  • orfice opposite the crown of the second upper molar
164
Q

What types of cells secrete saliva?

A

Mucous = mucous
Serous = alpha-amylase
*Secretion under autonomic nervous control

165
Q

How does food move down the first part of digestion?

A

Bolus

  • Pharynx
  • Esophagus
  • Stomach
  • *By PERISTALTIC contraction of smooth muscles
166
Q

Cardiac Sphincter

A

Separates ESOPHAGUS from STOMACH

167
Q

Pyloric Sphincter

A

Separates STOMACH from DUODENUM

168
Q

What are the glands of the stomach?

A 
Oxyntic = Gastric Glands;
6 cells :
1. Goblet (mucous neck) = secrete mucin
2 Chief (peptic cells) = secrete pepsinogen
3. Parietal cells = HCL and intrinsic factor
4. Enterochromaffin-like cells = secrete Histamine and Serotonin as paracrine regulators
5. G cells = secrete Gastrin to blood
6. D cells = secrete somatostatin to blood
169
Q

Gastrin

A

HORMONE that releases products of gastric glands

170
Q

Somatostatin

A

Inhibits gastric motility

171
Q

Pepsin

A

Active form of Pepsinogen;
Breaks down proteins — proteoases — peptones (but NOT AAs)
**Pepsinogen + HCl = Pepsin + Fragment

172
Q

Functions of HCl

A

Stomach pH = 2-3;

  1. Activate pepsinogen to pepsin
  2. Denatures proteins
  3. Makes gastric juice antiseptic
  4. Initiates conversion of cane sugar
173
Q

Gastric Lipase

A

-Breaks complex fats down to 3 fatty acids + glycerol

174
Q

Chyme

A

Partially liquified foodstuff through the action of digestive enzymes and HCl

175
Q

Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP)

A

Released in response to a lot of fats and carbs entering into the duodenum to SLOW the gastric motility and the release of food into the small intestine

176
Q

Gastric Ulcers

A

-Caused by bacterium H. pylori

177
Q

How does food move from stomach to small intestine?

A
  • Food at pyloric region of the stomach;
  • Enters duodenums (basic pH, 25 cm long) at PYLORIC SPHINCTER;
  • Pancreatic + BIle Ducts enter the duodenum about 10cm past sphincter
178
Q

Pancreas

A
  • Behind the stomach;
  • 12-15 cm;
  • Main duct extends the entire length with many tributaries;
  • PANCREATIC DUCT + COMMON BILE DUCT join to enter the duodenum at an orfice called the Duodenal Papilla
179
Q

Major Pancreatic Enzymes

A
  1. Trypsin (tryptase) = proteolytic enzyme (inactive as trypsinogen)
  2. Chymotrypsin = proteins to proteoses
  3. Peptidases = peptides to AAs
  4. Amylase = acts on starch
  5. Lipase = acts on fats
  6. RNAase = RNA to nucleotides
  7. DNAase = DNA to nucleotides
  8. Bicarbonate enzymes (HCO3) — sodium bicarbonate to neutralize gastric juices in SI
180
Q

What controls pancreatic secretions?

A
  1. Autonomic nervous;
  2. Hormones
    - Secretin = releases of HCO3 (bicarb ions)
    - CCK (pancreozymin) = stimulates flow of pancreatic fluid
181
Q

Islets of Langerhans

A

Found in the pancreas;

  • Secrete 2 hormone involved in blood sugar regualtion;
    1. Alpha cells = GLUCAGON — glycogenolysis to raise
    2. Beta cells = INSULIN — glycogenesis to lower by increasing facilitated diffusion of glucose into cells
182
Q

Liver

A
  • Largest organ;
    1. Secretes bile (GB stores)
    2. Glycogenic function — glucose
    3. Protein and fat metabolism
    4. Site of synthesis of plasma albumin, globulin, fibrinogen, and heparin
183
Q

Gallbladder

A
  • Green sac undersurface of the liver;
  • Hold 30mL of bile and drains it to the common bile duct that receives the hepatic duct from the liver;
  • Control over the release of Bile is nervous and hormonal — hormones most important = CCK causes contraction
184
Q

Bile Components

A
  1. Bile Pigments = Breakdown products of Hb catabolism = bilirubin
  2. Bile Acids = cholic acid and chenodeoxycholic acid — emulsify fats (act as detergents)
  3. Cholesterol = sterol needed for steroid hormones (too much causes gall stones)
  4. Mucin
185
Q

Small Intestine

A
  • 3 sections = duodenum, jéjunum, ileum;
  • Glands = Brunner’s Gland;
  • Brush border enzyme perform the final breakdown of food
186
Q

SI Brush Border Enzymes

A
  1. Maltase, sucrase, lactase
  2. Enterokinase
  3. Peptidases
  4. Lipases
  5. Nucleosidases — intracellular in submucosa

Spring 2014 (22 decks)

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