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Biomedical Science Year 1 > Physiology > Flashcards

Physiology Flashcards

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1
Q

How much of total body weight does blood make up?

A

About 8%

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2
Q

How many litres of blood do female adults have?

A

5

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3
Q

How many litres of blood do male adults have?

A

5.5

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4
Q

How much blood is in the lungs?

A

0.6 litres

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5
Q

How much blood is in systemic venous circulation?

A

3 litres

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6
Q

How much blood is in the heart, systemic arteries, arterioles and capillaries?

A

1.4 litres

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7
Q

Functions of blood

A

-Gas transport and exchange
-Distributing solutes
-Immune functions
-Maintains body temperature
-Regulates blood clotting
-Preserving acid-base homeostasis
-Stabilising blood pressure

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8
Q

What pH is blood maintained between?

A

7.35-7.45

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9
Q

What is transported in plasma?

A

Ions, nutrients, hormones, metabolic waste

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10
Q

What are erythrocytes?

A

Red blood cells

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11
Q

What are leukocytes?

A

White blood cells

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12
Q

What are thrombocytes?

A

Platelets

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13
Q

What is haematocrit?

A

Percentage of total blood volume occupied by red blood cells

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14
Q

How much of the blood does plasma make up?

A

55%

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15
Q

How much of the blood do white blood cells and platelets make up?

A

1%

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16
Q

How much of the blood does haematocrit make up?

A

44%

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17
Q

What is the normal naematocrit of a female?

A

42% (36.1%-44.3%)

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18
Q

What is the normal naematocrit of a male?

A

45% (40-7%-50.3%)

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19
Q

5 types of white blood cells

A

Lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

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20
Q

Two main functions of plasma

A

Thermoregulation and transport

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21
Q

Components of plasma

A

Water, plasma proteins, dissolved small molecules

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22
Q

How much of plasma is water?

A

> 90%

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23
Q

How much of plasma do plasma proteins make up?

A

8%

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24
Q

What are the plasma proteins?

A

Serum albumin, globulins, clotting proteins

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25
Q

How much of plasma protein is serum albumin?

A

55%

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26
Q

Function of serum albumin

A
  • Maintains osmotic pressure of plasma
  • Assists in transport of lipids and steroid hormones
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27
Q

Where is serum albumin synthesised?

A

Liver

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28
Q

How much of plasma proteins are globulins?

A

38%

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29
Q

Function of globulins

A
  • Bind to and transport ions, hormones and lipids otherwise incompatible with water-based plasma
  • Immune proteins: antibodies or gammaglobulins, made by leukocytes
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30
Q

How much of plasma proteins are clotting proteins (fibrinogen)?

A

7%

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31
Q

Function of clotting proteins (fibrinogen)?

A

Essential for blood clotting

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32
Q

Where are clotting proteins (fibrinogen) synthesised?

A

Liver

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33
Q

How much of plasma do dissolved small molecules make up?

A

1-2%

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34
Q

What are dissolved small molecules
in plasma?

A

Nutrients, waste produces, dissolved gases, hormones, vitamins, minerals

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35
Q

What structure are red blood cells?

A

Biconcave

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36
Q

Explain the function of the shape of red blood cells

A

Contributes to the efficiency of oxygen transport in the blood

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37
Q

Primary function of red blood cells

A

Oxygen transport

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38
Q

How much haemoglobin(%) in a red blood cell?

A

35%

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39
Q

How many mitochondria in area blood cell?

A

0 - can’t use transported oxygen

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40
Q

What is the volume of erythrocytes?

A

80-96 femtolitres

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41
Q

What is MCV?

A

Mean cell volume

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42
Q

What are microcytic red blood cells and where are they found?

A

Small - found in iron deficiency anaemia

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43
Q

What are macrocyctic red blood cells and where are they found?

A

Large - found in folate (vitamin B9) deficiency anaemia

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44
Q

Where for synthesis of blood cells start?

A

Bone marrow

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45
Q

What is erythropoiesis?

A

Red blood cell formation

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46
Q

How long does erythrocyte synthesis take?

A

About 26 days

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47
Q

Where is erythrocyte synthesis started and completed?

A

Starts in bone marrow, completed in blood vessels

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48
Q

How much oxygen in blood is bound to haemoglobin?

A

98.5%

49
Q

What is haemoglobin made up of?

A
  1. Globin - made up of four protein chains
  2. Four iron containing haem groups
50
Q

How many oxygen passengers can a haemoglobin molecule carry?

A

4

51
Q

What is haem?

A

Iron containing pigment, consists of a porphyrin ring containing one atom of iron

52
Q

What forms of globin proteins exist?

A

Alpha, beta, gamma, delta

53
Q

What is HbA?

A

2 alphas and two betas

54
Q

What percentage of adults have HbA?

A

97%

55
Q

What is HbA2?

A

Two alphas and two deltas

56
Q

What percentage of adults have HbA2?

A

2.5%

57
Q

What is HbF?

A

Two alphas and two gammas, foetal HB

58
Q

What is oxygen binding to Hb governed by?

A

-Partial pressure of oxygen
-Number of free oxygen binding sites available

O2 binding is cooperative

59
Q

What are the 2 forms of Hb?

A

Taut (t) and relaxed (r)

60
Q

What is the r form of Hb?

A

Relaxed - high O2 affinity, exists at high PO2, firmly binds oxygen (e.g. in the lings)

61
Q

What is the t form of Hb?

A

Taut - low O2 affinity, exists at low PO2, releases oxygen (in peripheral tissues)

62
Q

What can Hb bind to other than oxygen?

A

Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, the acidic hydrogen ion portion of carbonic acid

63
Q

Name 2 types of major classes of inherited disorders that cause abnormalities in Hb production

A

Haemoglobinpathies and the Thalassaemias

64
Q

What are haemoglobinpathies?

A

Abnormal globin chains are made - sickle cell anaemia

65
Q

What are the Thalassaemmias?

A

Normal globin chains are made but in decreased amounts OR are absent because of defects at the level of gene expression

66
Q

What is sickle cell anaemia?

A

-Genetic disease
-Mutation in the B-globin gene
-A glutamic acid residue is replaced by valine
-Creates ‘sticky patches’ on the molecule
-Resultant haemoglobin (HbS) polymerises at low pO2 forming long crystals of HbS
-Red blood cells deform and become sickle shaped

67
Q

What is a Thalassaemia?

A

-Found predominantly in India
-Production of a globins is reduced
-Leads to excess B chains
-Leads to abnormal oxygen dissociation curves and RBC damage
-Short lived RBC -> anaemia

68
Q

What is B thalassaemia?

A

-Predominantly in Mediterranean region
-Relative excess of a chains
-Do not form tetramers
-Bind to and damage RBC membranes
-At high concentrations form toxic aggregates
-RBC are fragile and short lived -> anaemia

69
Q

What is HBH?

A

4 beta chains

70
Q

What is haemostasis?

A

The arrest of bleeding from a broken blood vessel

70
Q

How do the body’s haemostatic mechanisms normally stop loss of blood?

A

Through small damaged capillaries, arterioles and venules

71
Q

What are platelets?

A

Not whole cells but small cell fragments that have budded off megakaryocytes

72
Q

What are megakaryocytes?

A

Extraordinarily large bone marrow

73
Q

What regulates megakaryocyte and platelet production?

A

Thrombopoietin

74
Q

Where is thrombopoietin produced?

A

Liver and kidneys

75
Q

What is thrombopoiesis?

A

Platelet synthesis

76
Q

Describe platelet synthesis

A

-Hematopoletic stem cells differentiate into megakaryoblasts
-Megakaryoblasts develop into megakaryocytes
-Megakaryocytes are massive cells with multiple copies of DNA
-Thrombopoietin stimulates megakaryocytes to extend arms through bone marrow sinusoids into blood vessels
-Break off as platelets

77
Q

Where are platelets stored?

A

The spleen

78
Q

How are platelets released

A

Contraction of the spleen

79
Q

How are platelets activated?

A

By the sympathetic nervous system

80
Q

3 steps of homeostasis

A
  1. Vascular spasm
  2. Formation of platelet plug
  3. Blood coagulation

Platelets have a role in all 3 steps

81
Q

What is vascular spasm?

A

-Cut or tear in blood vessel -> damaged cells and platelets at cut site release potent vasoconstrictors such as serotonin and ADP
-As the ends of the endothelial surfaces are pushed together by the spasm they become sticky and adhere to each other. Aided by platelets sticking to exposed collagen

82
Q

What is platelet plug formation?

A

-Adhesion - platelets stick to each other using von Willebrand’s factor, a plasma protein secreted by endothelial cells and platelets
-Activation
-Aggregation - the plug seals the break in the vessel lining and performs three other functinos

83
Q

What functions does the platelet plug perform?

A
  1. Compaction/strengthening
  2. Further vasoconstriction
  3. Stimulation of the clotting cascade
84
Q

What is prostacyclin?

A

-Released by normal blood vessel lining
-Inhibits platelet aggregation
-Limits platelet plug to the damaged region of the vessel preventing its spread to normal, undamaged tissue

85
Q

What is blood coagulation?

A

-Blood clotting
-Process changing liquid blood to a solid gel
-Clot strengthens and supports the platelet plug

86
Q

What is the final step in clot formation?

A

Conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin. Red blood cells are enmeshed in the fibrin plug

87
Q

Which pathways can stimulate thrombin activity?

A

Intrinsic pathway and extrinsic pathway

88
Q

What is the intrinsic pathway?

A

Initial stimulus is exposed to collagen

89
Q

What is the extrinsic pathway?

A

Initial stimulus is blood contact with damaged tissue outside of the blood vessel that exposes tissue factor (also known as factor 3 or tissue thromboplastin)

90
Q

What is the normal blood clotting process?

A
  1. Initiation phase - tissue exposure initially triggers the extrinsic pathway leading to thrombin production, but the amounts produced are too small for sustained coagulation
  2. Amplification phase - thrombin produced by the extrinsic pathway feeds back and activates the intrinsic pathway
91
Q

What is a blood group?

A

Classification of blood based on presence of inherited antigenic substances on surface of red blood cells

92
Q

How many known human blood group systems are there?

A

43

93
Q

What is a complete blood group?

A

The set of surface antigens on the individual’s RBC

94
Q

What is a blood group?

A

Usually only the ABO system and the presence or absence of the Rhesus D antigen

95
Q

How may blood group change?

A

-Infection
-Malignancy
-Autoimmune disease
-Bone marrow transplant

96
Q

Functions of the respiratory system

A

-Exchange of gases
-Regulation of body pH
-Protection from inhaled pathogens and irritants
-Vocalisation

97
Q

What is ventilation?

A

Inhalation and expiration

98
Q

What is external respiration?

A

Atmosphere to lung, lung to blood

99
Q

What is internal transport?

A

Transport of gases into the blood

100
Q

What is internal respiration?

A

Blood to cells

101
Q

How many lobes do the left and right lungs have?

A

Right -3
Left - 2, includes cardiac notch

102
Q

What comprises the upper respiratory tract?

A

Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx

103
Q

What comprises the lower respiratory tract?

A

Trachea, bronchi, bronchioles

104
Q

What is the respiratory zone?

A

Comprised of alveoli and capillary supply

105
Q

The bronchial tree

A

-2 primary bronchi
-5 secondary bronchi (2 left, 3 right)
-18 tertiary bronchi (8 left, 10 right)
-Continue to divide (up to 11 divisions)
-Bronchioles
-Cluster of alveoli

106
Q

What one goblet cells?

A

Secrete mucus to form continuous mucus layer over surface of respiratory tract

107
Q

What are ciliated cells?

A

Produce saline, sweep mucus upwards to pharynx

108
Q

What is the mucociliary escalator?

A

Removes noxious particles from lungs

109
Q

What is saline secretion essential for?

A

Functional mucociliary escalator

110
Q

Histology of the lower conducting system - larynx, trachea and primary bronchi

A

-Lined by ciliated respiratory epithelial cell layer
-Supported by c-shaped cartilage rings - to keep trachea open (patent);flexible enough to allow trachea to change in diameter during pulmonary ventilation
-Posterior surface of trachea is covered with elastic connective tissue and smooth muscle (trachealis); allows oesophagus to expand during swallowing

111
Q

Histology of the lower conducting system - larynx, trachea and primary bronchi bronchi to bronchioles

A

-Cartilage changes to complete rings, to progressively fewer, irregular, plates
-Epithelium gradually changes to columnar cells in smaller bronchi
-Amount of smooth muscle increases

112
Q

Vasculature

A

-Extensive capillary network provides large surface area for gas exchange
-Pulmonary artery supplies deoxygenated blood
-Pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood

113
Q

Alveolar structure

A

Type I alveolar cell: ~90% of alveolar cells, very thin; gas exchange
Type II alveolar cell: smaller, thicker; produce surfactant (L15)
Macrophages: protect alveolar structures from non-filtered, small particles

114
Q

What is Boyle’s law?

A

At constant temp and no. of particles, pressure and volume of a gas and inversely proportional

115
Q

What is the process of pulmonary ventilation?

A

-Involves volume changes in thoracic cavity and lungs that lead to creation of pressure gradient
-Gradient causes air to move into or out of lungs

116
Q

What pressure gradients influence ventilation?

A

Atmospheric pressure, intrapulmonary pressure, intrapleural pressure

117
Q

What is intrapulmonary pressure?

A

-Air pressure within alveoli
-Rises and falls with inspiration and expiration
-Always eventually equalises with atmospheric pressure due to pressure gradients reaching equilibrium

118
Q

What is intrapleural pressure?

A

-Pressure found within pleural cavity
-Rises and falls with inspiration and expiration
-Does not equalise with atmospheric pressure - normally ~4 mmHg less than intrapulmonary pressure

Biomedical Science Year 1 (8 decks)

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