Physiological Psych Flashcards
Pierre Flourens
First person to study the fxns of the major sections of the brain thru expiration or ablation- various parts of the brain are removed. Specific parts for different fxns and removal of one part weakens the whole brain
Franz Gall
Phrenology
William James
Studied how the mind fxned in adapting to the environment. His view formed functionalism.
John Dewey
Functionalism. Criticized reflex arc. Believed that psych should study organism as a whole as it adapted to its environment
Paul Broca
Functional impairments could be linked w specific brain lesions. Lesion in Broca’s area (left side of brain) a man was unable to talk
Phineas Gage
Damage to the prefrontal cortex. Changes in personality
Johannes Muller
Identified the law of specific nerve energies. Each sensory nerve is excited by only one kind of energy. The brain interprets any stimulation of that nerve as being that kind of energy
Helmholtz
Was the first to measure the speed of a nerve impulse- transition of the field into natural sciences
Sir Charles Sherrington
First inferred the existence of synapses. He thought it was an electrical process, but it is a chemical process
Sensory neurons (aka afferent neurons)
Transmit sensory info from receptors to the spinal cord and brain
Motor neurons (aka efferent)
Transmit motor info from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles.
Interneurons
Found btw other neurons and are the most numerous of the 3 types if neurons. Located in the brain and spinal cord and are linked to reflexive behavior
Reflex arcs
Neural circuit that controls reflexes. Behavior that is crucial to survival is controlled by reflexes. Uses interneurons to skip the step of having the brain tell a body part to do something (I.e take a hand off a burning stove)
CNS
Composed of brain & spinal cord
PNS
Made up of nerve tissue and fibers. The PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body. Subdivided into somatic and autonomic nervous systems
Somatic nervous system
Consists of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin and muscles. Sensory neurons transmit through afferent fibers. Motor transmit through efferent fibers.
Autonomic nervous system
Walter Cannon. Regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, and glandular secretions. Involuntary muscles. Regulates body temp by sweating or shivering. Two subdivisions- sympathetic and parasympathetic- act in opposition
Parasympathetic NS
Conserve energy. Resting & sleeping states. Reduced heart rate, respiration, and increases digestion. “Resting and digesting”. Acetylcholine.
Sympathetic NS
Activated whenever you face stressful situations. “Fight or flight”. Increases in heart rate, blood sugar level, and respiration. Decreases digestion. Dilates pupils.
Hindbrain
Primary functions include balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes such as sleeping and awaking. Vital fxns necessary for survival. Cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and reticular formation
Midbrain
Manages sensorimotor reflexes that also promote survival. Receives sensory and motor info. Inferior and superior colliculi
Forebrain
Complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes. Emotion and memory
Brainstem
Hindbrain and midbrain. Most primitive region of the brain
Limbic system
A group of neural structures most associated w emotion and memory. Aggression, fear, pleasure and pain
Cerebral cortex
Outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres. Language processing to problem solving, impulse control to long-term planning
Phelogeny
Term for evolutionary development in humans
Medulla oblongata
Lower brain structure that is responsible for regulating vital fxns such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.
Pons
Lies above the medulla and contains sensory and motor tracts btw the cortex and the medulla
Cerebellum
Maintains posture and balance and coordinates body movements. Alcohol affects cerebellum.
Reticular formation
Extends from hindbrain to midbrain. 3 A’s- arousal, alertness and attention
Colliculi
Superior colliculus- receives visual sensory input. Inferior colliculus- received sensory input from the auditory system (role in reflexes to sudden noises)
Forebrain
Above midbrain- Cerebral cortex (complex cognitive processes), basal ganglia (movement), Limbic system (emotion and memory), thalamus (sensory relay station), and hypothalamus (hunger & thirst, emotion)
Hypothalamus
Lateral hypothal, ventromedial, and anterior. Serves homeostatic fxns. Important in drive behaviors- hunger, thirst, and sex
Osmoregulation
Maintenance of water balance in the body is performed by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus.
Walter Cannon
Developed the concept of homeostasis
Lateral hypothalamus
Hunger center. If this area is not working you have aphagia- need to be force fed. Also plays a role in rage and fighting behaviors.
Ventromedial hypothalamus
Satiety center- tells u when you’ve had enough to eat. Brain lesions to this area usually lead to obesity. Hyperphagia, or excessive eating.
Cerebral cortex and hypothalamus
When removed cats cerebral cortex, the rage response was unfiltered. “Sham-rage”. When removed the cortex and hypothalamus together, cats a lot less likely to defend themselves
Anterior hypothalamus
Causes an increase in aggressive sexual behavior. When this area is stimulated, animals mount “just about anything”. Damage leads to permanent inhibition of sexual activity.
Basal ganglia
Coordinates muscle movement
Extrapyramidal motor system
Gathers info about body position (from areas such as the basal ganglia) and carries this info to the brain and spinal cord. Makes movements smooth and our posture steady. Associated w Parkinson’s disease. May also play a role in schizophrenia
Ventricles
Cerebrospinal Fluid filled cavities in the middle of the brain. Abnormally large ventricles with behaviors seen in schizophrenia- social withdrawal, flat affect, and catatonic states
Limbic system
Interconnected structures looping around the central portion of the brain. Emotion and memory. Made up of the septum, amygdala, and hippocampus
Septum
One Of the primary pleasure centers of the brain. Sexual arousal. James Olds and Peter Milner demonstrated that when rats could stimulate their septal region at will, they preferred it to eating. Septal area also inhibits aggression. If this area is damaged. Septal rage can occur.
Amygdala
Plays an important role in defensive and aggressive behavior. When damaged, aggression and fear are markedly reduced. Kluver-bucy syndrome- changes that result due to bilateral removal of the amygdala
Hippocampus
plays a vital role in learning and memory processes. Patient H.M. Had amygdala and hippocampus removed. Couldn’t learn any new info in long term memory- called anterograde amnesia. Retrograde amnesia refers to loss of memory of events that occurred b4 the brain injury
F-POT
Names of the 4 lobes of the neocortex- frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal
Frontal lobes
Prefrontal lobes and motor cortex. Prefrontal cortex executive fxn (numerous cognitive and behavioral processes) in which it supervises and directs operations of other brain regions
Association areas vs. projection areas
I.e prefrontal cortex- an area that combines input from diverse brain regions. Projection areas- receive incoming sensory info or send out motor- impulse commands I.e visual cortex (receives visual input from retina) & motor cortex (sends out motor signals to the muscles)
Parietal lobe
Located to the rear of the frontal lobe. Houses the somatosensory cortex- destination for all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, pain & temp. Also responsible for spatial orientation.
Occipital lobes
At rear of brain. Contain visual cortex (striate cortex). David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel.
Temporal lobes
Contains auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area- enables us to understand spoken language. Also serves in memory processing, emotional control, and language. Hippocampus also located in temporal lobe (activation of this area can evoke memories for past events)
Contralaterally
One side of brain communicates w the opposite side of the body. Not always the case- smell communicates w same side of body (called ipsilateral communication).
Dominant hemisphere (usually left- opposite of dominant hand)
Primarily analytic in fxn, well suited for managing details. Language, logic and math skills
Nondominant area
Supplementary to dominant hemisphere. Serves a less prominent role in language. More sensitive to the emotional tone of spoken language- important for reading other’s emotions. Intuition and creativity and music and spatial processing.
Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga
Studied effects of severing the corpus callosum- large fibers connecting the left & right hemispheres. Each hemisphere has it’s own fxn and specialization that is no longer accessible to the other. “Split- brain”
Cell body
Contains the nucleus.
Dendrites
Branch out from the cell body to receive incoming information from other neurons via post synaptic receptors. External stim of dendrites can lead neurons to “fire”
Axon
Branches out into numerous terminal buttons, each containing tiny vesicles filled with Neurotransmitters. Hence neuron can transmit chemical energy to electrical energy and vice versa
Glial cells
Non-neural cells that support neurons. They insulate axons with a protective myelin sheath (not all axons are myelinated). Plays a role in the speed of an impulse
Dendrites vs. axons
Most axons are myelinated and dendrites aren’t. Dendrites change shape, while axons stay same. Dendrites can regenerate missing branches. Dendrites are typically receptors of info, whereas axons are generally the communication ave of a nerve cell
Electrical props of nerves
Neural conduction within the neuron is an electrical process. Neural transmission btw neurons is a chemical process that always occurs at the synapse.
Resting potential
Slight negative (electrical) charge stored inside the neurons cell membrane just waiting to be transformed into a nerve impulse
Cell membrane
Thin layer of fatty molecules that separates the inside of the neuron from the outside. Semipermeable- allows some things to pass through but blocks others (small ions get through)
Ions
Small ions can pass through the cell membrane, but large ones are blocked. Can have + or - charge. Many large ions trapped inside membrane are negative. Resting state more negative inside cell than outside- polarized
Sodium- potassium pump
Potassium ions are inside cell and sodium ions are outside the cell. To maintain the resting potential, the pump must keep sodium outside & potassium inside to maintain a slightly neg charge
Action potential & electrical conduction
4 stage event- resting potential, depolarization, action potential spike & hyperpolarization.
Resting state
Polarized. -70 mv.
Depolarization
Stimulus has been sig enough to cause the neuron to fire, -50 mv.
Action potential spike
A rapid, +, electrical pulse. Suddenly allows a passage of sodium ions into the cell. Then the cell becomes repolarized by letting potassium ions back outside the membrane.
Hyperpolarization
The membrane briefly overshoots it’s original negative charge from the resting potential. Gradually returns to original resting potential
Refractory period
Once an action potential is triggered, the neuron can’t fire again until it completes part of it’s firing cycle. Absolute refractory period- depolarization (inrush of sodium ions)- this is the achievement of the action potential. During this time the neuron is unresponsive to additional stimuli. Relative refractory period- once the neuron has achieved its action potential spike, repolarization (potassium ions rush out) causes hyperpol & needs a stronger stimulus to reach threshold potential
All-or-nothing law
When depolarization reaches -50mv, the neuron is going to fire every time. Peaks at about +35mv, regardless of the intensity of the stimulation that triggered it.
Axon hillock
Where action potential orginates. A small elevation on a neuron where the axon meets the cell body. When fired the signal shoots along the axon, toward its ultimate destination- the terminal buttons.
Myelin
Insulates the axon and speeds up conduction of the signal. The efficient conduction along a myelinated axon is called saltatory conduction.
Nodes of Ranvier
Parts where axon is unmyelinated. The depolarization occurs at the nodes, the conduction jumping from node to node. When action potential reaches one node, it triggers an action potential at the node next to it. Faster than having a single impulse traveling down the body of the axon & keeps intensity rather than losing it.
Terminal buttons
When an action potential reaches the terminal buttons, it triggers the release of Neurotransmitters into the synapse.
Synapse
The space btw the terminal buttons and the dendrite of a diff neuron. The membrane of the terminal button that faces the synapse- presynaptic membrane (inside are tiny vesicles that store Neurotransmitters). On the other side, within the dendrite is the post synaptic membrane (has receptors).
What happens to the Neurotransmitters?
A.) they can attach to the receptors on the postsynaptic membrane b.) they can remain in the synapse where they are destroyed c.) they can be drawn back into the vesicles through reuptake.
Binding
Key to lock process where Neurotransmitter binds to receptor site. Where communication btw nerve cells occur. After binding either b or c happens
Postsynaptic potential
Once NT binds it generates a tiny electrical charge. Depending on the NT & receptor site, it can make the neuron more likely to fire (EPSP) or less likely to fire (IPSP).
Graded potentials
PSP’s voltage can vary in intensity. Thus not subject to all or nothing law. Voltage depends directly on how much the receptor sites are stimulated by NT. If few NT bind, PSP will be weak. If many bind, PSP will be strong. Also, as they spread from the original site of stimulation, their voltage gradually weakens as they travel along the dendrites.
Eric kandel
Studied simple neural networks in aplysia (sea snails). Demonstrated that changes in synaptic transmission underlie changes in behavior. Habituation- when stimulated, aplysia withdraw gills, after they learned this stim was harmless, they stopped withdrawing their gills
Acetylcholine
Found in CNS (loss of Ach in hippocampus linked to Alzheimer’s disease) and PNS (used to transmit nerve impulses to the muscles).
Catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine, & dopamine)
Loosely classified as monoamines or biogenic amines. All play important roles in the experience of emotions
Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
Involved in controlling alertness and wakefulness. Implicated in mood disorders such as depression (too little) and mania (too much).
Dopamine
Plays important role in movement and posture. High concentrations found in the basal ganglia (movements smooth and posture steady)
Amphetamine psychosis
A disorder closely resembling paranoid schizophrenia. Amphetamines enhance the activity of dopamine at the synapse. If taken for long periods, produce excessive dopamine activity. (Dopamine hypothesis)
Phenothiazines
Antipsychotic medications thought to reduce the sensitivity of dopamine receptors
Parkinson’s disease
Thought to result from a loss of dopamine-sensitive neurons in the basal ganglia (specifically the substantia nigra).
Tardive dyskinesia
Side effect of anti-psychotic medication resembling the motor disturbances seen in Parkinson’s disease
L-dopa
Treat motor disturbances in Parkinson’s disease. A synthetic substance that increases dopamine levels in the brain. Oral doses of dopamine did not work in treatment bc it was blocked from entering the brain by the blood-brain barrier. L-dopa can make it past the blood brain barrier. Side-effects- can produce psychotic symptoms in Parkinson’s patients
Serotonin
Also loosely classified as a monoamine. Plays role in regulating mood, eating, sleeping and arousal. Like norepinephrine, too much thought to cause mania, too little thought to cause depression. Led to production of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, such as Prozac Nor & serotonin sometimes lumped together & called monoamine theory of depression
GABA
Produces IPSPs (inhibitory). Plays an important role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain. Causes hyperpolarization in the post synaptic membrane
Peptides
Two or more amino acids joined together. The synaptic action of neuromodulators involves a more complicated chain of events than regular Neurotransmitters. Therefore, slower & have longer lasting effects. Endorphins and enkephalins (important neuromodulators) are similar in structure to morphine and other opiates
Sedative-hypnotic drugs (depressants)
Act to slow down the fxning of the CNS. Reduce anxiety in low doses; produce sedation in medium doses; and at high doses induce anesthesia. Synergistic or additive in effect. I.e. Combined effect is greater than either drug alone (alcohol & barbiturates make a dangerous combo)
Benzos and barbiturates
Sedative- hypnotics. Facilitate and enhance action of GABA, which stabilizes brain activity. Barbs are potent tranquilizers. Benzos treat anxiety.
Alcohol
Sedative-hypnotic. Memory disturbances. Korsakoff’s (chronic alcoholics due to a vitamin deficiency & malnutrition) syndrome produces even more serious disturbances in memory.
Behavioral stimulants
Increase behavioral activity by increasing motor activity or by counteracting fatigue. Amphetamines speed up CNS in ways that mimic the sympathetic nervous system. Stimulate receptors for dopamine, norep, & serotonin
Antidepressants
Behavioral stimulants. Elevate mood, increase activity level and appetite and improve sleep patterns. Tricyclics and monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors
Tricyclic antidepressants
Reduce depression by facilitating transmission of norepinephrine or serotonin at synapse. Block reuptake of monoamines
MAO inhibitors
Inhibit action of an enzyme called MAO, which normally breaks down and deactivates nor and sero in the synapse
Methylphenidate
Ritalin. Amphetamine. ADD. Increases alertness and decreases motor activity in hyperactive children
Thorazine, chlorpromazine, Phenothiazines, haloperidol
Antipsychotic drugs. Treat delusional thinking, hallucinations, and agitation in schizo. Block receptor sites for dopamine
Lithium carbonate
Treats bipolar disorder. Effective mood stabilizer. Eliminates 70-90 % of symptoms
Narcotics
Opium, heroin, and morphine. Effective pain- relieving drugs. Bind directly to opiate receptors in the brain which respond to endorphins.
Psychedelics
Alter sensory perception and cognitive processes
Endocrine system
Other internal communication network in the body. Uses chemical messengers called hormones. Hormones travel to their target destinations through the bloodstream. Involved in slow and continuous bodily process- I.e thyroid hormones regulate body growth. Does respond quickly to life-threatening situations- produces adrenaline (aka epinephrine- also sometimes acts as a neurotransmitter). Endocrine system also regulates sexual arousal
Pituitary gland
“Master gland” of the endocrine system. Works directly w the hypothalamus (4 F’s: feeding, fighting, fleeing & sexual fxning). Located at the base of the brain; divided into anterior and posterior. Anterior is master since it releases hormones (controlled by hypothalamus) to other glands in body which then release their own hormones into the bloodstream which signals an organ (like the heart) to change its fxning)
Sexual development
Hormones play a role in initiating, maintaining and halting devel of primary (present at birth) and secondary (do not appear until puberty) sex characteristics.
Androgens
Male hormones. Testosterone. Produced just after conception. If fetus does not produce or cannot use androgens, development will follow female pattern, regardless of the chromosomal genetic sex. Called AIS.
Gonadoptropic hormones
Pituitary gland produces & releases during puberty. Activate a dramatic increase in production of hormones by testes or ovaries.
Follicle- stimulating hormone
Stimulates the growth of an ovarian follicle, which is a small protective sphere surrounding the egg or ovum.
Luteinizing hormone
Associated w ovulation. At various stages during this cycle the ovaries secrete two hormones: estrogen (maturation and release of egg) and progesterone (prepares the uterus for implantation of the fertilized egg). If ovum is not fertilized, estrogen and progesterone decrease & menstruation begins
Stereotaxic instrument
Device used to locate brain areas when electrodes are implanted to make lesions or stimulate nerve cell activity
Wilder Penfield
Electrically stimulated and recorded brain activity before operating on the brain. Neurosurgeons rely on the assistance of the patient (who is awake and alert) to make cortical maps. No pain receptors in the brain, only local anesthesia is required.
David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel
Single cell recording in the visual cortex of cats. Recording is similar to stimulation in that they both involve electrodes, but stimulation is for studying new activity, whereas recording monitors an ongoing activity
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
Detects broad patterns of electrical activity (several electrodes on surface of head).
Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)
Detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain. A special device can detect radioactivity in the bloodstream (after a person inhales a harmless radioactive gas) records rCBF.
A.R. Luria
Associated w the study of neurological disorders
Damage to hippocampus
Anterograde amnesia
Agnosia
Affects perceptual recognition. Can be visual- can see an object, but can’t recognize it. (Cortical area- not visual cortex).
Apraxia
Inability to execute a simple motor response to a verbal command. Problems w executing the step by step sequence, no problem w individual steps. Motor cortex fine, problem w nearby association areas
Dementia
Loss in intellectual fxning. I.e Alzheimer’s- progressive memory loss.
Reticular formation
Near the brainstem keeps our cortex awake and alert. If disconnected, person will sleep for most of day
Circadian rhythms
24- hr cycle that is somewhat affected by external cues such as day and night. With no cues cycle may be slightly longer or shorter than 24 hrs
Sleep & awake EEG patterns
Beta, alpha, theta, and delta. Also REM- when we have most of our dreams. Sleep cycle lasts about 90 minutes. Beta- alert and performing a mental task, alpha- awake but relaxing, more synchronized than beta waves.
Sleep stages
Stage 1- detected on EEG by sleep spindles- short bursts of alpha waves. Slower frequencies and irregular and jagged waves. Voltage begins to increase. Stage 2- theta waves and ‘K-complexes’. Stage 3- only a few sleep waves/second. Delta. Stage 4-delta wave reaches it’s slowest rate & sleep spindles are at their steepest. Difficult to arouse from sleep. BAT-D
REM
Paradoxical sleep b/c brain activity looks like desynchronized beta waves, but our muscle tone is relaxed & our eyes are constantly moving. Sleep disorders usually occur during non-REM sleep
REM rebound
When ppl get other stages of sleep, but not REM, they are irritable when awake and have trouble concentrating. When they are allowed to sleep, they will spend more time in REM sleep than usual. Called REM rebound
James- Lange theory
We become aware of our emotion after we notice our physiological reactions to some external event. “We are sorry because we cry, angry because we strike”. Emphasized role of PNS. External event➡️physio response ➡️emotion
Cannon-Bard
Emotions reflect physiological arousal of the autonomic NS AND specific neural circuits in the brain
Schachter- Singer Theory
Two factor theory of emotion. Experience of emotion is based on the changes in physio and cog interpretation of that arousal. In some situations a person will label arousal as anger, and in other situations they will label it as euphoria. Thus, the persons appraisal determines the interpretation
