Developmental Psychology Flashcards
British empiricist school of thought
Believe that all knowledge is gained through experience. Child development is completely reliant on experiences with the environment
Philosophers who formed the British empiricist school of thought
John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, George Berkeley, David Hume, James mill, and John Stuart Mill
Tabula Rasa
Blank slate. Refers to a child’s mind at birth
Jean-Jacques Roussesu
Wrote a book called “Emile: Concerning Education”. Believed the opposite of tabula rasa. Society is not only unnecessary, but detrimental to optimal development.
Charles Darwin
Kept a baby biography. Evolutionary theory stressed the importance of studying the mind as it functioned to help the individual adapt to the environment. A central characteristic of the functionalist system of thought. Darwin’s theory also caused researchers to become interested in the individual differences in development
G. Stanley Hall
Father of developmental psychology. Lived from 1846-1924, first to do empirical research on children. One of the founders of the APA.
John Watson (1878-1958)
A behaviorist who influenced Dev psych. Criticized psych as being “too focused on mentalist topics”. Believed in environmental influences & tabula rasa. Told parents to provide the right learning experiences and not to show too much overt affection. Believed goal of psych was to predict behavior based on a given stimulus.
Arnold Gesell
A nativist that believed that development occurred as a maturational (or biological) process, regardless of training. Opposed learning and behavior theorists. Believed development was biol based & dev blueprint existed from birth.
Psychodynamic Orientation
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). A system of thought that arouse out of a clinical setting. Stresses the role of subconscious conflicts in devel of functioning & personality.
Cognitive structuralists
Jean Piaget (1896-1980). In opposition to the behaviorists. Saw children as more actively involved in their devel- constructing knowledge through their experiences w their environment
Cross-sectional studies
Compare groups of subjects at different ages
Longitudinal studies
Compare a specific group of people over an extended period of time
Sequential cohort studies
Combine cross-sectional and longitudinal research methods. Several groups of different ages are studied over several years
Nature
Human capabilities are present at birth and individual differences are largely an effect of genetic makeup
Nurture
Human capabilities are determined by the environment and shaped by experience. Nature vs. nurture debate has effectively disappeared in the past 30 yrs
Gregor Mendel
Observed the inheritance of traits in pea plants & hypothesized the existence of the basic unit of heredity, the gene. Each trait was controlled by an alternative form of a gene, an allele, & each variation was represented by an allele that was either dominant or recessive. For any given gene there are 2 alleles.
Genotype
The total genetic complement (genetic makeup) of an individual. Identical genotypes can produce different phenotype a depending on environments. I.e plants growing at diff altitudes
Phenotype
The total collection of expressed traits that is the individuals observable characteristics. Individuals with the same phenotype can have diff genotypes
Chromosomes
Where genes are located. Where we find the genetic info of the indiv. The 23rd pair determines the sex of the child. The nucleus of each cell in the human body, except for sperm & egg cells, hold 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 in all).
Diploid
Chromosomes exist in pairs (split for reproduction)
Haploid
Only 1. I.e the gametes (sperm & egg cells) when join during conception come together to form the 23rd chromosome
Sexual reproduction
The offspring receives genes from both parents, making the genetic variability far greater than in asexual reproduction
Genes in common
It can be assumed that children have 50% of their genes in common w parents; siblings & fraternal twins also have 50% in common; identical twins have 100% in common
R.C. Tyron’s studies
(1942). On inheritance of maze running ability in laboratory rats. Shows even very specific behaviors have a genetic basis. Bred “maze bright” and “maze dull” rats over several generations to show learning ability had a genetic basis.
Family studies
Researchers often compare rates of similarity of a characteristic among family members vs. unrelated individuals. I.e children of schizophrenics are 13x more likely to have schiz than gen population. For siblings 9x. Downfall, is your cannot separate shares environment from genetic factors
Twin studies
Compares MZ & DZ twins are better able to distinguish the relative effects of shared environ & genetics b/c they are assumed to share the environ equally. Some ppl disagree & say ppl treat MZ twins more similarity so shared environ may not be equal.
Twins raised apart
Compared personality characteristics:
- MZ raised together most similar
- Then MZ raised apart
- Followed by DZ twins raised together
- DZ raised apart least similar
Adoption studies
Studied IQ & showed adopted children’s IQ is more similar to their biological parents than their adoptive parents. Criminal behavior among boys shares a similar pattern
Lewis Terman
Compared kids w IQ above 135 w kids in general pop. First study to focus on “gifted children” and it was a large scale longitudinal study that followed the devel of group over time
Down’s syndrome
Extra 21st chromosome. Age of parents is a risk factor for having a child w Downs (older moms and/or Dads more susceptible)
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
A degenerative disease of the nervous system. Results when the enzyme needed to digest phenylalanine, an amino found in milk & other foods, is lacking. Today infants can be tested & the severe effects of the disease can be avoided w a strict diet. 1st genetic disease that could be tested in large pops
Klinefelter’s syndrome
In males, possession of an xtra X chromosome (XXY). They are sterile & often have mental retardation
Turner’s syndrome
Females w only 1 X chromosome. Results in a failure to develop secondary sex characteristics, short fingers & an unusually shaped mouth
Conception
Takes place in the Fallopian tubes where the ovum or egg cell is fertilized by the male sperm cell
Zygote or fertilized egg
The sperm cell fertilizes the egg cell & forms a single cell
Germinal period
The fertilized egg travels down the Fallopian tube and is implanted into the uterine wall
Embryonic period
The 8 weeks following the germinal period; embryo increases in size by 2 million percent
Fetal period
Begins in the 3rd month with measurable electrical activity in the fetus’s brain
External threats to prenatal devel
Infants whose mothers contract rubella b4 end of 2nd month run a high risk of cataracts, deafness, heart defects, & mental retardation. Other viral infections, flu, measles, herpes, etc have been linked to various birth defects
Thalidomide
A tranquilizer that was often prescribed to women in England in the 1950s. Produced birth defects such as missing and malformed limbs & defects of the heart, eyes, digestive tract, ears & kidneys
Rooting
When infants turn their heads in the direction of stimuli applied to the cheek- such as a nipple
Moro
Infants react to abrupt movement of their heads by flinging out their arms, extending their fingers, and then hugging themselves. Usually disappears after 4 months & it’s presence at 1 yr is a strong suggestion of devel difficulties
Babinski reflex
Infants’ toes spread apart automatically when the soles of their feet are stimulated
Grasping
Infants automatically close their fingers around objects placed in their hands
Jean Piaget
Established that there are qualitative differences btw adult & childhood thought. Proposed 4 stages of cognitive development- sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Believed that the development of thought directs the devel of language
Schema
Organized patterns of thought or behavior. I.e behavioral schema- infants learn from grasping reflex that they can grasp things. Older children develop operational schema, characterized by more abstract representation of cognition
Adaptation
Takes place through assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation
The process of interpreting new information in terms of existing schemata.
Accommodation
Occurs when new info doesn’t fit into existing schemata. It is the process of modifying existing schemata to adapt new info
Sensorimotor stage
Approx 0-2 yrs. primary and secondary circular rxns & object permanence
Primary and secondary circular rxns
In primary circular rxns, the infant begins to coordinate separate aspects of movement. Restricted to motions concerned w the body. Advent of goal oriented behavior. (I.e when hungry will begin to suck). Secondary circular rxns are directed toward manipulation of objects in the environment.
Object permanence
Object continues to exist even when it’s existence can no longer be perceived. Marks the beg of representational thought
Preoperational stage
Lasts from 2-7. Characterized as beg of representational thought. Have object permanence. Other important features are centration & egocentrism
Centration
The tendency to only be able to concentrate on one aspect of a phenomenon. I.e Cannot take pov of someone else & understand that relationships are reciprocal. Egocentrism- when children think that everyone experiences things from his or her POV.
Conservation
The notion that physical properties of matter don’t change simply bc the appearance changes. Children don’t have this concept in the preoperational stage
Concrete operational stage
7-11. Children can conserve & take the perspective of others into account, but are limited to working w concrete objects or info that is directly available. Have difficulty w abstract thought
Formal operational
11+. Begins to think logically about abstract ideas. “Think like a scientist”. Pendulum experiment
Lev Vygotsky
The engine driving cog devel is internalization of various aspects of culture- rules, language, etc. Known for zone of proximal devel, referring to skills & abilities not fully developed, but are in process of devel.
Phonology
The actual sound stem of language. There are about 40 in the English language
Categorical perception
The ability to distinguish between differences in sound that do not denote differences in meaning.
Semantics
The learning of word meanings. I.e some words refer to entire categories, like women, and some words refer to specific members of categories, such as mommy
Syntax
Refers to how words are out together to form sentences. The effect of word order on meaning
Pragmatics
The efficient use of a language. The same sentence will have two different meanings depending on how it is spoken. A child must learn to recognize & produce these inflections
Babbling
An important precursor to language for children- including deaf children. Happens in first year
Lenneberg, Rebelsky, and Nichols (1965)
Babbling begins at same age for hearing kids w hearing parents, hearing children w deaf parents, and and deaf children. Hearing children increase frequency of babbling, while deaf kids stop shortly after. Deaf kids w parents who use sign language appear to babble using their hands!
Language acquisition
Before 18 months, kids will only use words one at a time. Between 18 & 20 months, a child will begin combining words. Knowledge of a language is determined by producing grammatically correct sentences, while avoiding incorrect ones & being able to tell the difference.
Errors of growth or overregulation
Around 2.5-3, children begin producing larger sentences & making more errors. Child will say “hisself” vs. “himself”, even though they probably never hear hisself. This suggests that language acquisition is not the result of imitation & reinforcement, but the active application of a dynamic internalized set of linguistic rules
Noam Chomsky
Nativist. Believed that children must have some special innate capacity for language acquisition. Children acquire language by age 5. Adults have trouble learning a second language.
Transformation grammar.
Chomsky. Syntactic transformations, or changes in word order that differ w meaning.
Language acquisition device (LAD)
The innate capacity for language acquisition, and is thought to be triggered by exposure to language Children learn to make syntactic transformations at an early age, therefore this ability must be innate.
A sensitive period for language acquisition
The time when environment input has maximal effect on an development ability. Language from 2- puberty. Test case of this was Genie- severe case of child abuse where she did not have human contact until she was 13. She learned some aspects of language, but not others
Freud
Pioneer in personality and emotional growth. Human psych and sexuality are inextricably linked. Believed libido is present at birth. During each of 5 stages, children are faced with a conflict btw societal demands and desire to reduce libidal tension.
Fixation
Freud. Occurs when a child is overindulged or or overly frustrated during a stage of development. In response, child forms a personality pattern based on that particular stage
Oral stage
0-1 yrs. Libidal energy is centered on the mouth; fixation can lead to excessive dependency
Anal stage
1-3 yrs. libido is centered on the anus and eliminating or retaining waste. Fixation during this stage would lead to excessive orderliness or sloppiness in the adult.
Phallic or Oedipal stage
3-5. Oedipal conflict is resolved during this stage. Electra complex for girls. Fear of castration for boys, “penis envy” for girls
Latency
Lasts until puberty. Libido is largely sublimated during this stage
Genital
Begins at puberty; if previous stages have been successfully resolved, the person will enter into normal heterosexual relations
Erik Erikson theory
Psychosocial theory. Devel is a sequence of central life crises. There is a possible favorable outcome and an unfavorable outcome. Devel occurs thru resolutions of conflicts btw needs and social demands
Trust vs. mistrust
Erikson. First year of life. If resolved successfully, child will trust his environment & himself. If not, child will often be suspicious of the world
Autonomy vs shame and doubt (1-3 yrs)
Erikson. Favorable is a feeling of will and an ability to exercise choice as well as self-restraint. Competence and autonomy. Unfavorable is a sense of doubt & lack of control. What happens is a result of external influences rather than ones own volition
Initiative vs. guilt (3-6 yrs)
Erikson. Favorable includes purpose, the ability to initiate activites, and ability to enjoy accomplishment. Unfavorable outcome is a fear of punishment & either self-restriction or overcompensation by showing off.
Industry vs. inferiority (6-12)
Favorable is competency, able to exercise abilities in the world, and to affect world in way child desires. Unfavorable results in a sense of inadequacy, low self-esteem and inability to act in a competent manner
Identity vs role confusion (adolescence)
“Physiological revolution”. Favorable outcome is fidelity, unique and integrated person with sustained loyalties. Unfavorable are confusion of identity and amorphous personality that shifts from day to day
Intimacy vs isolation (young adulthood)
Favorable is love, intimate relationships, commit to another person & ones own goals. Unfavorable is avoidance of commitment, alienation from others and one’s ideals. Either withdrawn or incapable of superficial relationships with others
Generativity vs stagnation (middle age)
Productive, caring, contributing member of society. Unfavorable is self- indulgent, bored, self- centered with little care for others
Integrity vs despair (old age)
Favorable, will see wisdom, assurance in the meaning of life, dignity and acceptance of the fact that ones life has been worthwhile. If unfavorable, feelings of bitterness about ones life, a feeling that life has been worthless, and fear over ones impending death
Temperament
Somewhat heritable, emerges early in life (infancy), stable, and pervasive across situations. Can be measured in 3 ways: parental report, observation at home, and observation in lab
Thomas and chess
Longitudinal struts to examine temperament. 3 styles: easy, slow to warm up, and difficult
Social smiling
Smiling associated with facelike patterns. At first almost any face can elicit a smile, at 5 months require a familiar face
Harry Harlow
Concluded that contact comfort is more essential in bond formation than providing for physical needs. Also found that monkeys raised with wire mothers were less socially adept than cloth. Monkeys in isolation for over a year could not be reintegrated into monkey society.
John Bowlby
Did a study on children raised in orphanages with little human contact. Tended to be timid and asocial. Preattachment phase- infant reacts identically to every adult. 3 months- discriminates between familiar and unfamiliar faces, 6 mo- seeking out & responding to mother, 9-12 mo- stranger anxiety, 2- reacts to mothers absence w severe protest, 3 yr- child can separate
Mary Ainsworth
Demonstrated the universality of Bowlbys sequence w a study on Ugandan infants. Insecure/avoidant attachment (type A), secure attachment (type B), insecure/ resistant attachment (type C)
Konrad Lorenz
Ethologist who studied imprinting. Imprinting is the rapid formation of an attachment bond btw an organism and an object in the environment. Stimuli can be a physical feature of the mother or a specific movement.
Kolberg’s stages
1st stage- Preconventional morality- right and wrong are defined by consequences of a given action (punishment or reward). Stage 2 is an orientation toward reciprocity or instrumental relativist stage. 2nd stage- conventional phase- based on social rules. 3rd stage is looking for approval from others. 4th stage- rules of authority. 3rd phase is post conventional morality. Stage 5 is social contract orientation- laws ensure greater good. Stage 6 is acting according to a set of universal ethical principles
Heinz dilemma
Kolhberg. A series of hypothetical moral dilemmas. Person asked what main character should do & give a reason- person can be placed in one of 6 stages. Heinz dilemma- man stole a drug to save his wife’s life.
Carol Gilligan
Opposes Kohlberg. Says boys and girls have different perspectives on moral issues. Females more focused on interpersonal relationships and men more rule centered.
Kohlbergs Gender stages
Gender labeling (2-3 yrs) children achieve gender identity- can also label gender of others. Gender stability (3-4), marks the period when children can predict that they will still be a boy or girl when they grow up, gender consistency (4-7) children understand the permanence of gender, regardless of dress or behavior
Gender schematic processing theory
Martin & Halverson. After children label themselves they begin to associate w behaviors related to their gender & ignore behaviors associated w opposite gender
Diana Baumrind
3 diff parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive.
Fatherhood
Fathers tend to play more vigorously w kids, and mothers stress verbal interactions
