Physics #11

Question 1

scientific method

Answer 1

a set of steps that defines the appropriate order of events to structure and carry out an experiment

Question 2

experimentation data collection

Answer 2

involves manipulating and controlling variables

Question 3

observation data collection

Answer 3

involves no changes in the subject’s environment

Question 4

Put the steps of the scientific method in the correct order: 
publish 
collect new data 
gather data and resources
analyze the data 
generate a testable question
verify results
form a hypothesis
interpret the data and existing hypothesis

Answer 4

generate a testable question
gather data and resources
form a hypothesis
collect new data 
analyze the data 
interpret the data and existing hypothesis 
publish 
verify results

Question 5

hypothesis

Answer 5

the proposed explanation or proposed answer to our testable question

Question 6

what format do hypotheses usually follow?

Answer 6

if-then statements

Question 7

what are the 5 questions asked using the FINER method to determine if a research question will add to the body of scientific knowledge in a practical way and within a reasonable time perioid?

Answer 7

1. feasible: gather materials, subjects, time, financial constraints
2. interesting: is there utility in the answer
3. novel: has the question already been asked
4. ethical: are there any ethical violations associated with answering the research question
5. relevant: will it effect people outside of the research field too

Question 8

In order to make generalizations about our experiments, we must make sure that the outcome of interest would not have occurred without our intervention, therefore we use ____

Answer 8

controls

Question 9

positive control

Answer 9

ensure a change in the dependent variable when it is expected
ex: in testing the development of a new assay for detection of HIV, administering actual HIV to the assay should result in a positive result

Question 10

negative control

Answer 10

ensure no change in the dependent variable when no change is expected
Ex: in testing the development of a new assay for detection of HIV, known non-HIB samples used in the assay should result in a negative result

Question 11

placebo effect

Answer 11

an observed or reported change when an individual is given a sugar pill or sham intervention.

Question 12

in basic science research, we manipulate the ______ and measure or observe the ____

Answer 12

independent variable

dependent variable

Question 13

when is a relationship said to be causal?

Answer 13

when a change in the independent variable always precedes a change in the dependent variable, and when the change in the dependent variable does not occur in the absence of the experimental intervention.

Question 14

On a graph, the independent variable belongs on the ____ axis and the dependent variable belongs on the ____ axis

Answer 14

x axis

y axis

Question 15

accuracy/validity

Answer 15

the ability of an instrument to measure a true value

Ex: accurate scale should measure a 170 pound person as 170 pounds

Question 16

precision/reliability

Answer 16

the ability of the instrument to read consistently or within a narrow range.

Question 17

because bias is a systematic error in data, only an ______ tool will introduce bias

Answer 17

inaccurate

Question 18

controls in experiments are used to establish _____

Answer 18

causality

Question 19

randomization

Answer 19

the method used to control for differences between subject groups in biomedical research.

Question 20

a proper randomization algorithm will be equivalent to a ____

Answer 20

coin toss or die roll

Question 21

blinded

Answer 21

the subjects or investigators do not know which group certain individuals are in

Question 22

sinlge-blind experiments

Answer 22

only the patient or the assessor is blinded

Question 23

double-blind experiments

Answer 23

the investigator, subject, and assessor all do not know the subject’s group

Question 24

discuss binary, continuous, or categorical variables

Answer 24

binary: yes or no
continuous: scale: cardiac output
categorical: state of residence

Question 25

confounding variable

Answer 25

In statistics, a confounder is a variable that influences both the dependent variable and independent variable, causing a spurious association.

Question 26

what are the 3 types of observational studies in medicine?

Answer 26

cohort, cross-sectional, case-control

Question 27

cohort studies

Answer 27

subjects are sorted into groups based on differences in risk factors (exposures) and then assessed at various intervals to determine how many subjects in each group had a certain outcome. Ex: follow groups of smokers and non smokers and observe lung cancer incidence.

Question 28

cross-sectional studies

Answer 28

snapshot | categorize patients into different groups at a single point in time

Question 29

case-control studies

Answer 29

start by identifying the number of subjects with or without a particular outcome, and then look backward to assess how many subjects in each group had exposure to a particular risk factor ex: 100 patients with and without lung cancer are assessed for their past smoking tendencies.

Question 30

ethnographic studies

Answer 30

used by sociologists to understand cultures by looking at the complete social environment

Question 31

what criteria are used to determine the likelihood of causality between two variables?

Answer 31

Hill's criteria

Question 32

which one of Hill's criteria is necessary for causality but not sufficient for it

Answer 32

temporality

Question 33

Hill's: temporality

Answer 33

the exposure must occur before the outcome

Question 34

Hill's: strength

Answer 34

greater variability of the independent variable leads to greater variability in the dependent variable strength of association I believe

Question 35

Hill's: dose-response

Answer 35

as independent variable increases, dependent variable increases

Question 36

Hill's: consistency

Answer 36

relationship found in multiple settings

Question 37

Hill's: plausibility

Answer 37

there is a reasonable mechanism for the independent variable to impact the dependent variable

Question 38

Hill's: alternative explanations

Answer 38

eliminate other plausible explanations

Question 39

Hill's: experiment

Answer 39

can perform an experiment

Question 40

Hill's: specificity

Answer 40

the change in the outcome variable is only produced by an associated change in the independent variable

Question 41

Hill's: coherence

Answer 41

the new data and hypothesis are consistent with the current state of scientific knowledge.

Question 42

____ is a result of flaws in the data collection phase of a study, while _____ is error during analysis

Answer 42

bias | confounding

Question 43

selection bias

Answer 43

the subjects used for the study are not representative of the target population ex: certain group of people is more likely to volunteer than another group of people.

Question 44

detection bias

Answer 44

educated professionals using their knowledge in an inconsistent way ex: obese individuals more likely to be screened for diabetes and hypertension, increasing the numbers of obese people with it diagnoses.

Question 45

hawthorne effect/observation bias

Answer 45

the behavior of a study participant is altered simply because they recognize that they are being studied. ex: individuals given weight loss drug are more likely to start working out which makes it look like the drug is having more of an effect than it actually is.

Question 46

what is another name for observation bias

Answer 46

Hawthorne effect

Question 47

what are the 4 ethical tenets of medicine?

Answer 47

beneficence, nonmaleficence, autonomy, justice

Question 48

beneficence

Answer 48

the obligation to act in the patient's best interest

Question 49

nonmaleficence

Answer 49

the obligation to avoid treatments or interventions in which the potential for harm outweighs the potential benefit

Question 50

autonomy

Answer 50

the responsibility to respect patients' decisions and choices about their own healthcare.

Question 51

justice

Answer 51

the responsibility to treat similar patients with similar care and to distribute healthcare resources fairly.

Question 52

informed consent

Answer 52

a patient must be adequately counseled on the procedures, risks and benefits, and goals of a study to make a knowledgable decision about whether or not to participate in the study

Question 53

Can a subject withdraw consent?

Answer 53

yes, at any time

Question 54

what are considered vulnerable persons in research

Answer 54

children, pregnant women, prisoners,

Question 55

respect for persons in research

Answer 55

honesty between researcher and participant

Question 56

justice in research

Answer 56

selection of research topic and execution of research

Question 57

beneficence in research

Answer 57

it must be our intent to cause a net positive change for both the study population and general population and we must do our best to minimize any harms.

Question 58

equipoise

Answer 58

in studies comparing two potential treatment options, one cannot approach the research with the knowledge that one treatment is superior to the other.

Question 59

coercive influence vs. monetary compensation

Answer 59

the line between a coercive influence and a compensatory influence is often debated. In general, compensatory influence is one that does not impact the decision to participate, while coercive influence is one in which the subject loses autonomy to make the decision to participate.

Question 60

population

Answer 60

the complete group of every individual that satisfies the attributes of interest.

Question 61

information that is calculated using every person in a population is called a ____

Answer 61

parameter

Question 62

sample

Answer 62

any group taken from a population that does not include all individuals from the population.

Question 63

information about a sample is called a _____

Answer 63

statistic

Question 64

statistics can be used to _____ parameters with repeated sample collection

Answer 64

estimate

Question 65

internal validity

Answer 65

support for causality | the extent to which you are sure the independent variable caused the dependent variable.

Question 66

external validity

Answer 66

generalizability | the extent to which study results apply to the larger population

Question 67

statistical significance

Answer 67

not the result of chance

Question 68

clinical significance

Answer 68

a notable or worthwhile change in health status as a result of our intervention

Question 69

statistical significance vs. clinical significance

Answer 69

just because there is mathematical statistical significance does not mean this will change patient outcomes.

Question 70

why might small samples provide insufficient info about an entire population?

Answer 70

higher likelihood of selecting an outlier or by chance the data being skewed

Question 71

a study without ______ may be one that resulted in chance and one without ______ will have no effect on patients

Answer 71

statistical significance | clinical significance

Question 72

____ dictates which study questions are worth pursuing and which subjects to use.

Answer 72

justice