Philosophy Of Science

Question 1

Geocentrism Explanation.

Answer 1

The earth as the centre of the universe. Two distinct regions: Earth - Moon (sub-lunar = fire, water, air and earth), Moon - Universe (super-lunar = aether). All objects move in straight line to natural place (upward or downward) and no other movement possible unless external cause.

Question 2

Ptolemy and Geocentrism.

Answer 2

Noticed a problem: on successive nights the wandering stars (planets circling earth) moved to the east relative of previous night (displacements not fixed; slow down, stop). Proposed epicycles; small cycles starts make in addition to main orbit.

Question 3

Geocentrism and Roman Catholic Church.

Answer 3

The church accepted the model as it supported their teaching that God created a universe around man.

Question 4

Heliocentrism Proponent.

Answer 4

Corpinicus.

Question 5

Heliocentrism Explanation.

Answer 5

The sun is the centre of the universe, the earth orbits the sun. One turn of the earth around the sun takes one year (instead of daily orbit of sun around earth). Earth spins on its own axis once per day (regulating day any night). Later added epicycles to better predict wandering star movement.

Question 6

Galileo and Heliocentrism.

Answer 6

Heliocentric model failed to have much impact due to criticisms such as ‘why do people not fly off the surface of the earth’? Technological development of telescope: discovery of more stars, moon surface, jupiter’s moons, altering size mars/venus - argued in favour of heliocentric model.

Question 7

Heliocentrism and the Roman Catholic Church.

Answer 7

The church placed Galileo under house arrest until his death for threatening religious explanation.

Question 8

Geocentrism Proponents.

Answer 8

Aristotle and Ptolemy.

Question 9

Descartes Aim.

Answer 9

Aim to create a sharp distinction between science and religion (protecting one from the other). However, his views (dualism and mechanistic) primarily benefited science due to the Cartesian Gap: how could soul steer mechanism of human body if separate?

Question 10

Dualism.

Answer 10

The mind and body are two inextricably linked but distinct substances: res cogitans and res extensa.

Question 11

Mechanistic View.

Answer 11

The universe and all matter within are viewed as a self-perpetuating machine created by God so as not to require constant maintenance. Discards the notion of goals and intentions.

Question 12

Newton and Mechanistic View.

Answer 12

Solved the problem of orbit using precise mathematical equations. Thus, giving further evidence to the ‘perfect machine’ - all workings could be studied and understood.

Question 13

Plato And Rationalism.

Answer 13

Knowledge is obtained through reasoning using innate knowledge, careful observation is not required. Based on principle of deductive reasoning.

Question 14

Deductive Reasoning.

Answer 14

Conclusions are drawn from indisputable (known) premises. Conclusions are guaranteed to be true if known statements and true and correct logical rules are followed.

Question 15

Bacon and the Scientific Method.

Answer 15

Human perception is fallible and limited (think geo/heliocentric) - stressed that technological advances should be integrated into natural philosophy. Developed scientific method in 1600s, first defender of inductive method.

Question 16

Scientific Method.

Answer 16

Empiricism: all knowledge based on experience and derived from the senses. Interaction between systematic observation and reasoning, conduct experiments to test claims, standardise experiments so others can replicate.

Question 17

Inductive Reasoning.

Answer 17

General conclusions are based on specific, limited number of convergent observations. Not necessarily true (turkey analogy).

Question 18

Comte and Positivism.

Answer 18

Authentic knowledge can only be obtained using the scientific method. Religion and philosophy considered inferior and associated with primitive and ignorant groups.

Question 19

Age of Enlightenment.

Answer 19

18th/19th Century: scientific approach very prevalent in intellectual circles.

Question 20

Emergence of Psychology: Independent Branch of Science.

Answer 20

Darwin increased interest in the study of humans. Metaphysical questions about the universe turned into questions about man and his place in the universe. Kant began teaching about human functioning (self-consciousness, mental processes, emotions) and his lectures were established as part of the curricula and terms ‘psychology’.

Question 21

Advancements in the Age of Enlightenment.

Answer 21

Scientific method used to study human psyche. Psychophysics established through advancement in physiological studies (relationship between physical stimuli and sensations/perceptions). Development of statistics: pointed to need of good research designs to draw valid conclusions.

Question 22

Three Commonsense Views of Science.

Answer 22

Facts are given to careful and objective observers via the senses. Facts are prior to and independent of theory. Facts constitute a firm and reliable foundation for scientific knowledge.

Question 23

‘Facts given to careful and objective observers via the sense’ - problem.

Answer 23

How good is our sensory observation, can be subject to illusions. There is an element of interpretation to perception to understand what the different facts mean and how they relate. Theory (prior knowledge) can change the perception of facts. Scientific theories are full of non-observable facts, but these may become observable.

Question 24

Logical Positivists and Non-Observable Facts.

Answer 24

It is acceptable to include non-observable facts in scientific theory as long as it was possible to calculate the values of the non-observable variables.

Question 25

‘Facts are prior to and independent of theory’ - problem.

Answer 25

The search for facts needs to be guided by knowledge.

Question 26

‘Facts constitute a firm and reliable foundation for scientific knowledge’ - problem.

Answer 26

Scientific laws cannot always be derived from facts (logical reasoning alone is insufficient). It is logically impossible to prove a conclusion based on induction.