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Religious Studies > Philosophy: Arguments for the existence of God > Flashcards

Philosophy: Arguments for the existence of God Flashcards

1
Q

Is the Design argument a priori or a posteriori?

A

A posteriori

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2
Q

Is the Design argument from natural theology or fideism?

A

Natural Theology

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3
Q

What type of reasoning does the Design argument use?

A

Inductive

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4
Q

3 key terms from the Design argument

A

Teleological
Analogy
Inference

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5
Q

Who came up with the Analogical argument?

A

William Paley

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6
Q

What are Paleys observations? 3

A

Complexity
Regularity
Purpose

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7
Q

What are key terms to describe Paley’s observations?

A

Empirical
Inductive
Synthetic
A posteriori

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8
Q

Describe Paley observations: Complexity

A

Not simple, contain many parts. He looks at the complexity of the biological organisms and organs eg. the eye.

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9
Q

Describe Paley observations: Regularity

A

Paley observes in particular the regularity of the orbit of the comets, moons, planets and seasons of the year. Things are ordered nor chaotic.

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10
Q

Describe Paley observations: Purpose

A

Teleological and rules out chance. Paley observes the machines that we make and infers they’re built for a purpose.

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11
Q

Link the 3 marks of design

A

The complexity and regularity of the universe implies it has a purpose, even if we don’t know what it is.

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12
Q

What are Paley’s examples?

A

Fish have fins and gills meaning they’re perfectly adapted for living underwater.
Eye is adapted for vision with all the right parts in the right places.
Birds wings are also well adapted for their function.

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13
Q

What is Paley’s analogy?

A
  1. A watch has complex parts, each with a specific function and the parts work together for a specific purpose.
  2. So the watch must be designed by a watchmaker.
  3. Similarly the universe has part that function together for a specific purpose.
  4. So the universe must of been designed by a universe maker.
  5. The universe is a far more wonderous design than a watch so it’s designer is much greater than any human designer.
  6. The universe designer must be God.
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14
Q

What is an anology?

A

When meaning/information is transferred from one thing to another.

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15
Q

What is Paley’s argument?

A

Observe and infer rather than directly see. From purpose and regularity we observe in nature, we can conclude that these were the intention of God.

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16
Q

Why is Paley’s argument teleological?

A

The argument stems from a purpose as telos means ends or purpose.

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17
Q

Paley quote

A

Like effects have like causes

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18
Q

What is the appearance of design?

A

Just cause it appears designed doesn’t mean it is. It may be fake but we can’t compare it eg. universe to anything.

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19
Q

Who believes in the appearance of design?

A

Richard Dawkins who is an evolutionnary biologist.

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20
Q

What is the Anthropic principle?

A

It’s cosmically fine tuned. The probability of design is 99.99999% therefore logically there is a designer.

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21
Q

What is the Goldilocks enigma?

A

Paul Davies wrote that the universe is just right. Futher explains the probable existance of a designer due to how perfect it is for human survival and flourishing.

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22
Q

Critisms of the Design argument?

A

Problems
Illogical
Unreasonable
Alternative explanations
Limits

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23
Q

What is a weakness of an inductive argument?

A

Never compelling and can always come to different conclusions.

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24
Q

Quotes about design?

A

“The marks of design are too strong. Design must have had a designer. That designer is God.”
“Every maifestation of design which existed in the watch exists in the works of nature.”

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25
Q

Strengths of Paley’s Design argument: Simpliest explanation

A

The all-powerful God of the Bible is the simpliest explanation. Richard Swinburne supports this point as he argues God is a simplier and therefore better explanation. He says “simplicity is always evidence for truth.”

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26
Q

Strengths of Paley’s Design argument: Evil is unavoidable

A

Evil is unavoidable for God to bring about God. The free will defence supports this point and maintains that if humans have free will then evil is inevitable. Evil can be seen to have logical and practical necessity. The soul making defense theory argues that evil allows humans to morally develop towards perfection.

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27
Q

Strengths of Paley’s Design argument: Evolution

A

Evolution doesn’t destroy the argument as evolution doesn’t expain itself and it is compatible with the belief of God.
Dawkins Blind watchmaker explains nothing since evolution is regulated by the laws of physics, biology and chemistry and these laws do not explain themselves.

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28
Q

Strengths of Paley’s Design argument: Metaphyscial and transendence.

A

Whilst Paley is an 18th century philospher his conclusion the designer is a metaphysical and transcendent being seems reasonable. The laws of nature govern science and these can only come from an external source eg.God. The designer must be metaphysical as it would be impossible to design the world from inside it.

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29
Q

Strengths of Paley’s Design argument: Inductive and a posteriori argument

A

Its both the simpliest and most reasonable argument. Its inductive and a posteriori therefore based on observation and evidence. Even Kant who didn’t accept the argument agreed its a powerful argument.

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30
Q

Strengths of Paley’s Design argument: Anthropic principle

A

Supported by the Anthropic principle which is a modern design argument. It argues through physics that the universe is ordered and fine tuned for intelligent life to develop. The odds against boundary conditions mean there is a 99% chance of design. Goldilocks enigma.

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31
Q

Weaknesses of Paley’s Design argument: Simpliest explanation

A

Even if teh universe is designed the argument is limited to what is proves. There is no evidence that the God of the Bible is the designer. The God of theism is a greater cause than is needed to account for design in the world. The designer could be anything and there could be multiple.

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32
Q

Weaknesses of Paley’s Design argument: Evil

A

Existence of evil is a strong argument against an all-loving and all-powerful designer. Why would such a powerful God create such a fragile universe?

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33
Q

Weaknesses of Paley’s Design argument: Vegetable

A

The universe is more like a vegetable than machine and vegetables don’t need designers they grow themselves. This is backed by the theory of evolution. Dawkins states that Paley was gloriously wrong and if indeed there is a watchmaker it is evolution.Dawkins speaks of a blind watchmaker and that the universe has no purpose or plan.

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34
Q

Weaknesses of Paley’s Design argument: Anthropomorphic principle

A

We have no experience of universe making so our ideas are anthropomorphic. We lift our ideas from our own limited experience and impose them on the universe. Kant agreed and said that we impose order on the world. Design is in our minds not in the world.

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35
Q

Weaknesses of Paley’s Design argument: Appearance

A

Nature can design itself and evolutionary points support this. The Epicurean hypothesis and Multiverse theory support the idea that it was inevitable that the universe would eventually order itself. Order can come from chaos and these theories account for the appearance of design.

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36
Q

Weaknesses of Paley’s Design argument: Anthropic principle

A

AJ Ayer says we have nothing to compare our world to. It may appear designed but we have no way of knowing. The Anthropic principle is weak we are finely tuned for the universe not the other way around.

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37
Q

Weaknesses of Paley’s Design argument: Like effects do not have like causes

A

A cause must be proportional to its effect. Paley infers there is an all-loving designer (God) but this is out of proportion to the evidence. If there was a designer there is no evidence it was the God of the Bible, it may be a limited designer.

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38
Q

Weaknesses of Paley’s Design argument: Epicurean hypothesis

A

Chance rather than design called the Epicurean hypothesis. The world consists of indivisble atoms, given infinite time it was inevitable these atoms would order themselves which accounts for the appearance of design.

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39
Q

Weaknesses of Paley’s Design argument: Multiverse theory

A

There are multiple universes and by chance some will be ordered and then life becomes inevitable. This supports the idea we can explain the universe without a God.

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40
Q

Who wrote the Cosmological argument?

A

Aquinas

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41
Q

Is the Cosmological argument a priori or a posteriori?

A

A Posteriori

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42
Q

Is the Cosmological argument from natural theology or fideism?

A

Natural Theology

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43
Q

What observations is the Cosmological argument based on?

A

Observations of the cosmos

44
Q

What does the Cosmological argument focus on?

A

Cause and Effect with an emphasis on motion.

45
Q

What is motion?

A

The movement of a thing from one place to another.

46
Q

What does the Cosmological argument question?

A

Whether the universe is contigent or necessary.

47
Q

What does the universe have to come from?

A

It has to come from something as something can’t come from nothing.

48
Q

What is an infinite regress?

A

A series of appropriately related elements with a first member but no last member, where each element leads to or generates the next in some sense.

49
Q

Inductive

A

Arguments from small evidence to big conclusions. It is based on inferences eg. all canaries in my garden are yellow so all canaries in the world must be yellow.

50
Q

A posteriori

A

Grounded in emprical evidence, observation and inferences.

51
Q

Natural Theology

A

Arguments come from evidence based in the natural world.

52
Q

Cosmos

A

The universe

53
Q

The Cosmological argument is grounded in observation, what can we observe in our world?

A

Everything has a cause and effect so nothing causes itself. We can observe contingency!

54
Q

Cosmological argument summary (3 points)

A
  1. The universe has an eternal beginner
  2. The beginning was caused
  3. The first cause was God
55
Q

What is the Cosmological argument also known as?

A

First Cause Argument

56
Q

Why was Aquinas a natural theologian?

A

He believed faith in God must be based upon evidence, reason and logic. He thought if we studied the cosmos then evidence for God’s existance is clear. Just ask how did the universe get here?

57
Q

What is Aquinas’ logic?

A

The universe can’t have come from nothing. It must of been caused by something transcendant to it. Aquinas calls this the first cause and argues it must be God.

58
Q

What religion was Aquinas?

A

Christian

59
Q

What can the Cosmological argument be traced back to?

A

Plato and Aristotle who argued through logic there must be a first ‘unmoved mover’ that initiated the universe.

60
Q

Aristotle argues behind every movement is a?

A

A chain of events

61
Q

Aristotle argues in the beginning of everything there must be a what?

A

A common source

62
Q

Aristotle argues this common source must be what?

A

An external substance

63
Q

What does Aristotle call the ultimate cause of the universe?

A

Unmoved mover

64
Q

What is an efficient cause?

A

Cause directly before eg. your parents

65
Q

What is a final cause?

A

It’s the first cause and it isn’t caused by anything else it’s ultimate.

66
Q

What is Way 1?

A

The argument from motion

67
Q

What is Way 2?

A

The argument from causality

68
Q

What is Way 3?

A

The argument from necessity

69
Q

Define motion

A

Transportation from A to B

70
Q

Define from potentiality to actuality

A

A change in state eg. fire moves wood from being potentially hot to actually hot.

71
Q

Explain Way 1

A

Everything we observe is in motion
Things do not move themselves (logical reason as otherwise it would have to precede itself)
We have a chain of mover motion mover
This chain cannot regress infinetly
We must arrive at a first unmoved mover
This unmoved mover is God.

72
Q

Explain Way 2

A

Everythig in the universe is contingent
Therefore everything in the universe has a cause
Things cannot cause themselves for they would have to precede themselves which is logically impossible
Therefore there is a chain of cause and effect
This chai cannot regress infinitely
Therefore we must arrive at a first cause which is uncaused
The first cause is God

73
Q

What dies Aquinas’ argument rely on?

A

Logical assumption the universe isn’t eternal/infinite

74
Q

What is an infinite regress?

A

Going backwards forever, no starting point

75
Q

Explain the logic behind Aquinas’ rejection of an infinite regress?

A

Something can’t come from nothing therefore there must be a first cause. Everything has a cause as nothing is infinite.

76
Q

Which scientific theory could be used to support the impossibility of an infinite regression?

A

Big Bang Theory

77
Q

Leibniz’s stance of an infinite regress?

A

Cosmology rejects an infinite universe however even if it is infinite Leibniz reasons that an infinite universe stil demands a God. He swaps cause for reason.

78
Q

Leibniz key quote

A

If you suppose the world is eternalnyou will suppose nothing but a succession of states and will not find in any of them sufficient reason.

79
Q

What does Leibniz’s argument replace cause with?

A

Reason so even IF the world does regress infinitely and there is no first cause, you would still expect an explanation or reason for the existence of the universe.

80
Q

What does the principle of sufficient reason state?

A

Everything has a reason and “nothing takes place without sufficient reason.”

81
Q

What does Leibniz mean by a sufficient reason?

A

A complete explanation

82
Q

What is a partial explanation?

A

Something which doesn’t provide a complete explanation.

83
Q

If there is going to be a suficient reason for our existence what does Leibniz state…

A

“we have to get back to something which does not depend on anything else.”

84
Q

For Leibniz what is the being which doesn’t depend on anyhting else?

A

God

85
Q

What does Leibniz say about the world?

A

“If we suppose the world to be everlasting, to go on and on, backwards in time forever; we will never come to a complete or sufficient explanation for its existence.”

86
Q

How does Leibniz say we should recat to unending reasons?

A

We should not be satisfied and instead should recognise that the whole universe depends on God, who himself is uncaused.

87
Q

How could Leibniz’s argument be used to respond to the Big Bang Theory?

A

Big Bang Theory only occured because God made it so. God explains the why and the Big Bang Theory is the what.

88
Q

Define necessary

A

Uncaused, independent, eternal, can’t not exist, not dependent on anything else, has always been there.

89
Q

Define contingent

A

Caused, dependent, reliant, hasn’t always been here and won’t always be here.

90
Q

Explain Way 3
ON SPECIFICATION

A

Contingent items depend on other factors to bring about their existence
If all things were contingent we would not have a universe
The logic behind is that something eg. the universe can’t come from nothing
Therefore there must exist a necessary being
This we call God

91
Q

How did Mascall summarise Aquinas’ 3rd way?

A

For contingent things to exist there must exist a necessary being
Contingent things do exist
Therefore there must exist a necessary being ie. God

92
Q

What is Copleston’s revision of Aquinas’ Way 3?

A

He argues that everything IN the universe is contingent, which means they do not have within themselves the reason for their existence. The logic is that the universe is therefore itself is contingent, the universe does not contain within itself the reason for its existence. Therefore the world needs an external explanation which is an existing beingthat is self explanatory. This is a being that must and cannot not exist. In other words there must exist a necessary being=God.

93
Q

What does the Kalam cosmological argument aim to prove?

A

The impossibility of the actual infinite.

94
Q

Who developed the modern version of the Kalam argument?

A

William Lance Craig

95
Q

Outline the Kalam cosmological argument?

A

The universe had a) a beginning or b) no beginning
If it had a beginning the beginning was a) caused or b) uncaused
If it has a cause, the cause was either a) personal or b) not personal

The Kalam argument is establishing A as the correct option

96
Q

Define infinite

A

Eternal

97
Q

Define potential infinte

A

Has a starting point

98
Q

Define actual infinite

A

No beginning or end

99
Q

How does the Kalam argument support Aquinas’ rejection of an actually infinite universe?

A

Kalam philosphers and mathematicians explain that actual infinity is purely a mathematical concept that does not transalate to the metaphysical/real world. Simply, there cannot be actual infinity so the fact our universe is spatial and temporal proves that is can’t be actually infinite, only potentially infinite.

100
Q

What does a potentially infinite universe have?

A

A beginningnand therefore returns back to Aquinas’ logic that the beginning of a contingent universe must be caused.

101
Q

What did J.L. Mackie argue?

A

A prime mover was necessary for intelligibility. He used the anology fo railway carriages. Arguing that there can be an infinite number of carriages but only if there is an engine (driving force.) So if the universe is infinite it must have a driving force behind it ie. God.

102
Q

Bertrand Russell’s criticisms of the Cosmological argument: cause?

A

The universe’s existence is just “a brute fact” and it is “just there.”
“I shall say the universe is just there, and that’s all.”
He says if everything has to have a cause then what is God’s?
It can be argued Aquinas and William Lane Craig contradict themselves when they reject the possibility of the infinite but claim God is.

103
Q

Counterargument to Bertrand Russell’s criticisms of the Cosmological argument: cause?

A

Supporters of the cosmological argument would argue this criticism is a result of a misunderstanding. The denial of the actual infinite refers to the impossibility in reality of the actually infinite collection of things/events. God is not a collection but an infinite being. God is unique and so only God is necessary as the laws of nature don’t apply to God.

104
Q

Bertrand Russell’s criticisms of the Cosmological argument: fallacy of composition?

A

Russell ridicules Leibniz’s argument suggesting if it’s argued that because everything in the universe has a cause then the whole universe therefore must have a cause, one could argue that everyone in the world has a mother so the universe must also have a mother. This is called a fallacy of composition eg. by saying the wall is made of bricks then the whole wall must be a brick.

105
Q

Counterargument to Bertrand Russell’s criticisms of the Cosmological argument: fallacy of composition?

A

Maybe Russell has missed the point as neither Aquinas or Leibniz is arguing that because every event requires a casual explanation the whole series of events requires a casual explanation. Rather Leibniz is saying something in form of sufficient reason or cause must bridge the gap between nothing and something. The Cosmological argument is saying that you cannot have an infinte series of things, each of which needs to be explained by something prior to it, without demanding why the whole thing is there in the first place.

Religious Studies (6 decks)

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