Persuasion, Negotiation, and Explanation Flashcards
1
Q
Persuasion
A
- Defined: the use of language to influence the acts, beliefs, attitudes and values of others.
- A variety of strategies may be used to persuade others, ranging from the highly emotional and manipulative appeals found in advertisements for products to the truthful and logical arguments found in scholarly philosophical debates.
- Persuasion utilizes a wide variety of linguistic, cognitive, and social competencies that can occur in written and spoken form.
- In contemporary society, skillful persuasion can lead to personal satisfaction, professional success, and greater control over one’s environment.
2
Q
Persuasion Research
A
- Studies by Wood, Weinstein, and Parker (1967) examined strategies 64 young elementary school aged children used to make a listener change their minds. Results showed that as grade level increased, children were more likely to use positive, listener-oriented strategies, such as politeness and bargaining over negative strategies like whining and begging.
- Research by Flavell (1968) also confirmed that, with increase of age, children arguments include more advantages to the listener. This suggests that these improvements reflect a growth in social perspective taking.
- The research of R.A. Clark and Delia (1976), assessing the persuasive skills of 58 children, grades 2-9, agreed with these findings and also showed that increase of age led to increased ability to deal with counterarguments. Older children were more likely to anticipate the types of objections the listener might have and to supply reasonable replies. Older children also produced a greater number and variety of arguments for each situation.
3
Q
Assessment of Persuasive Skills
A
- Provide hypothetical but realistic situations to children and ask them to generate persuasive messages that they would give to meet a certain goal. (i.e. “if you wanted your mother to buy you a new toy/let you go over to a friends house what would you say?”) Do this with a variety of goals (snack, play time, no homework) and listeners (parent, teacher, peer, sibling)
- You can also use Naturalistic situations instead of hypothetical (i.e. show the child a cookie, tell them they will get it if they can persuade you with why you should give it to them.)
4
Q
Aspects of Persuasion to assess:
A
- Adjustments to listener characteristics
- Stating advantages to the listener
- Anticipating and replying to counterarguments
- Use of Positive strategies (politeness & bargaining)
- Lack of negative strategies (whining & begging)
- Number & variety of arguments
- Assertiveness
5
Q
Treatment to build Persuasion Skills
A
- Read two examples of a persuasive conversation, one using highly persuasive techniques, the other without. Have the child determine which person was more persuasive. Make a chart of all the of the persuasive things that were said and discuss them.
- Role-play an in-class debate/campaign speech over a relevant topic. Have each child prepare a persuasive argument. Have a discussion afterwards of why the person was persuasive or not.
- Give obviously foolish behavior examples and have the child persuade you out of that behavior. (Why shouldn’t you put your shoes on before your socks?)
- Make sure that what they are persuading for/against is meaningful (persuade to get a cookie, persuade against something that is dangerous)
6
Q
Negotiation
A
- Negotiation defined: “Communication to resolve conflicts and to achieve goals in mutually acceptable ways”
- Negotiation is a discussion and ultimate arrangement of the terms of an interaction between individuals.
- Important for everyday lives
- Ways in which one handles negotiation skills can determine whether the outcome is positive or negative
- Adolescent with LLD can be expected to have great difficulty
7
Q
Importance of Negotiation
A
- Increases range of communication functions
- Important for successful, respectful relationships
- Emphasizes fairness and understanding
- Lack of negotiation skills affects:
— self-esteem
— Popularity
— Successful adjustment in adolescents and adulthood
8
Q
Rules for Negotiating
A
- Be Respectful
- Be Fair
- Be Flexible
9
Q
Development of Negotiation Skills
A
- Develops considerably during secondary school years
Involves: - Takes social perspective of another
- Shows awareness of needs, thoughts, feelings of others
- verbal reasoning
- Uses cooperative and collaborative strategies
- shows concern for group welfare
- Shows concern for long-term implications of conflict
- Shows willingness to compromise
10
Q
Negotiation Research
A
- Selman et al. found that children with more advanced negotiation skills demonstrated better awareness of other’s needs
- Selman et al. also found interpersonal negotiation remains incomplete in preadolescents
— Therefore conducted a study examining development of interpersonal negotiation skills in 60 students
- Young: 11-13
- Middle: 14 to 16
- Older: 17-19
- Older adolescents were aware of wants and feelings of participants, showed the most concern for long-term consequences of conflict and were most interested in resolving the conflict through compromise and mutual agreement
- Growth in this area continues to grow into adulthood
- Selman et al (1986) discovered girls demonstrate more advanced negotiation strategies than boys
- This difference is attributed to differences in social conditioning between boys and girls
- For adolescents, more advanced negotiation strategies occur with peers rather than adults and when conflict occurred in a personal situation rather than work situation
11
Q
Negotiation Highlights
A
- As children mature, they increase with regards to their abilities to resolve conflicts in ways that reflect greater social perspective taking, verbal reasoning, cooperation and collaboration with others, and concern for group welfare.
- Children also show an increase for long term consequences of a conflict and willingness to compromise
- Growth in these areas increase the most when peer group becomes more important and opportunities for socialization expand
12
Q
Assessment of Negotiation
A
- Role-playing
- Hypothetical situations
- Ex. Dan and his girlfriend are out on a date together. Dan wants to start going out with other girls, but he doesn’t think his girlfriend will like that. What should he say?
- Caitlin wants to go camping for the weekend with her friend Ani, but she knows her parents don’t like Ani much. What should she say to them to convince them to let her and Ani go?
- Ask, “What should he or she say?”
13
Q
Assessment of Negotiation 2
A
- Ask clients to describe potential conflict, say why they chose the language they did and talk about what feelings might come up in such a situation
- Through analyzing these situations, we can assess their abilities to talk about feelings, long term consequences and determine if they attempt to find a solution using compromise
- Less mature responses involve benefit to only one character, show less awareness of the participant’s feelings and desires, and that opt for short-term over long-term solutions
14
Q
Treatment Strategies for Negotiation
A
Break out the story books
- Role playing to teach perspective taking and expressing emotion
- can be done in a group setting
- set up situations in which negotiation is needed
- Homework time
- Bed time
- Weekend activities (depends on age)
- Time watching t.v. or video games
- “Social growth and social acceptance of children with SLI may depend on intervention designed to help them express their own perspectives effectively and, at the same time, recognize the perspectives of others” (Brinton et al. 1998)
15
Q
Explanation
A
- Expository discourse defined: “the use of language to convey information” (Nippold, p. 321)
- “monologue providing factual descriptions or explanations of events” (Westerveld & Moran, 2011)
- Types of Discourse
- Conversational discourse- unplanned or unstructured interaction between two or more partners
- Narrative discourse- fictional narratives/stories and personal narratives/recounts, among other genres
- *Expository discourse- conveys factual or technical information such as descriptions, procedural directions, or cause-effect explanations
