Personality part 3 Flashcards
What are the two basic formulations of traits?
Internal properties: Traits exist within a person and cause behaviors.
Example: Mark seeks admiration because he is naturally ambitious.
Descriptive summaries: Traits are just labels for patterns of behavior.
Example: George is called “jealous” because of how he behaves, not because of an inner cause.
How do internal causal properties explain behavior?
Traits exist inside a person and influence their behavior.
A person might possess a trait even if they do not express it at all times.
Example: Luisa loves to travel but stays home to save money.
What is the “Act Frequency Approach” to traits?
This approach views traits as patterns of behaviors rather than internal qualities. It identifies traits through three steps:
Finding Examples (Act Nomination) – Listing behaviors that represent a trait.
Example: For impulsivity, behaviors like “interrupting conversations” or “making quick decisions” are suggested.
Identifying the Best Examples (Prototypicality Judgment) – Choosing which behaviors are the clearest signs of a trait.
Example: “Shouting in an argument” is a stronger sign of anger than just frowning.
Observing Behavior (Recording Act Performance) – Measuring how often someone actually does those behaviors.
Example: Checking how frequently a person makes impulsive choices in real life.
What are the criticisms of the Act Frequency Approach?
Lack of context: It doesn’t specify how much behavior is needed to define a trait.
Example: Is someone creative if they wrote one poem in school?
Fails to capture potential traits: Some traits exist internally but are not always expressed.
Example: A brave person might never face a dangerous situation, so they don’t “show” their bravery.
What are the three main approaches to identifying personality traits?
Lexical Approach – Important traits are found in language (words people use).
Statistical Approach – Uses math (factor analysis) to find related traits.
Theoretical Approach – Based on existing psychological theories.
What is the Lexical Approach?
If a trait is important, people create words for it.
Looks for common and universally used trait words.
Example: Words like “friendly” or “brave” exist in many languages.
Weakness: Focuses mostly on adjectives, not actions or behaviors.
What is the Statistical Approach?
Uses factor analysis to find patterns in personality traits.
Groups similar traits together into bigger categories.
Example: “Talkative,” “outgoing,” and “sociable” → all relate to Extraversion.
Weakness: Needs large datasets and might miss less obvious traits.
What is the Theoretical Approach?
Traits are chosen based on theories of personality.
Example: Freud focused on traits like anxiety, while Maslow studied growth.
Weakness: Can be biased by the theory, rather than real data.
Why is combining these approaches useful?
Each approach has strengths and weaknesses.
Best results come from using all three together.
Example: The Big Five Personality Traits were found using both Lexical + Statistical approaches.
What is Eysenck’s PEN Model of personality?
A three-factor model of personality based on biology.
Traits:
Psychoticism → Aggressive, impulsive, antisocial.
Example: A person who frequently gets into fights and lacks empathy.
Extraversion → Sociable, active, enjoys stimulation.
Example: Someone who loves public speaking and socializing at parties.
Neuroticism → Emotionally unstable, anxious, moody.
Example: A person who overthinks and gets nervous easily before exams.
How is personality structured in Eysenck’s PEN Model?
Super-traits (Broad traits like Extraversion)
Traits (More specific, like sociability)
Habitual Acts (Consistent behaviors, like starting conversations often)
Specific Acts (Single actions, like greeting a stranger)
Example: A highly extroverted person frequently initiates group activities.
What is the biological basis of Eysenck’s model?
Extraversion → Related to CNS arousal (introverts are more reactive, so they prefer quiet).
Neuroticism → Higher emotional reactivity and stress response.
Psychoticism → Higher testosterone, lower MAO neurotransmitter levels.
Linked to aggression, antisocial behavior, impulsivity, and a lack of empathy.
Example: Introverts may find loud environments overwhelming due to stronger nervous system responses.
What are the Big Five personality traits?
Openness → Creative, curious, imaginative.
Example: An artist who constantly explores new painting techniques.
Conscientiousness → Organized, responsible, disciplined.
Example: A student who creates a detailed study plan and follows it strictly.
Extraversion → Outgoing, energetic, enjoys socializing.
Example: A party host who thrives in lively conversations.
Agreeableness → Kind, empathetic, cooperative.
Example: A volunteer who helps the homeless every weekend.
Neuroticism → Emotionally unstable, easily stressed.
Example: A person who panics over minor inconveniences
How was the Big Five model developed?
Lexical Approach: Personality traits come from language.
Statistical Approach: Factor analysis was used to group traits.
Example: Psychologists studied thousands of personality words in dictionaries to identify patterns.
What is the HEXACO Model?
A six-factor model of personality based on the Big Five, with Honesty-Humility added.
Honesty-Humility: Fair, sincere, avoids manipulation.
Example: A person who refuses to cheat on an exam even when given the opportunity.
Low Honesty-Humility: More likely to be manipulative or dishonest.
Example: A businessman who deceives clients for profit.
How does the HEXACO Model differ from the Big Five?
HEXACO includes Honesty-Humility, making it more ethical-focused.
Based on cross-cultural research in multiple languages.
Example: A person scoring high in Honesty-Humility is less likely to engage in corrupt business practices.
What is the biological basis of Eysenck’s model?
Extraversion → Related to CNS arousal (introverts are more reactive, so they prefer quiet) and extraverted are less aroused and seek more stimuli.
Neuroticism → Higher emotional reactivity and stress response.
Psychoticism → Higher testosterone, lower MAO neurotransmitter levels.
Example: Introverts may find loud environments overwhelming due to stronger nervous system responses.
What are common issues in measuring personality?
People may try to appear better than they are (social desirability).
Some might fake answers or not pay attention (carelessness).
The Barnum effect makes vague statements seem personal.
The Barnum Effect tricks us into believing general statements are personally meaningful. Be skeptical of personality descriptions that seem “too accurate”—they might just be cleverly worded to apply to everyone!
Example: Someone taking a job test might fake being “very organized” to impress employers.
What does ‘Meaningful Differences Among Individuals’ mean in personality psychology?
People differ in measurable ways, even if they have similar traits.
Psychologists measure how much a person differs from the average.
Example: Two people may be kind, but one is also talkative, while the other is quiet.
re personality traits stable over time?
Personality is mostly stable but can change after major life events (“turning points”).
Without major life events, personality stays mostly stable.
Example: A child who throws tantrums might grow into an adult who argues a lot.
Are personality traits always the same across situations? And what is Situationism and Person-Situation Interaction in personality psychology?
Not always. Personality interacts with the environment.
Situationism suggests behavior is shaped more by the situation than personality traits.
Example: A friendly person might be outgoing at a party but shy in a work meeting.
Person-situation interaction:
Behavior depends on both personality and the situation.
Example: Someone with a short temper may react aggressively only when stressed.
Person-Situation Interaction
Formula: B = f(SxP)
Behavior (B) = Function of (Situation x Personality).
People choose their situations (e.g., an introvert avoids loud parties).
Situations influence emotions (e.g., an introvert at a party might start feeling more social).
Traits evoke reactions (e.g., a bossy person gets pushback from others).
What is Situational Selection in personality psychology?
People choose environments that match their personality.
Example: An extravert prefers to work in a busy office rather than alone at home.
What is Evocation in personality psychology?
A person’s traits can trigger reactions from others.
Example: A rude person may make others avoid them without realizing why.
What is Manipulation in personality psychology?
People change their environment to fit their needs.
Example: A controlling person might pressure friends to do what they want.
What is Aggregation in personality measurement?
Instead of judging one action, psychologists look at behavior over time.
Example: Instead of measuring responsibility based on one missed deadline, they check how often a person is late overall.
Why do companies use personality tests?
To improve hiring decisions and workforce efficiency.
✅ Example: A company hiring for customer service looks for high agreeableness and low neuroticism.
What is personnel selection in personality testing?
It helps employers choose the right candidate based on personality traits.
Example: A bank hiring a teller prefers high conscientiousness and low impulsivity.
What is integrity testing?
Assessing the likelihood of an employee engaging in counterproductive behaviors (e.g., theft, absenteeism).
Overt tests: Directly ask about past behaviors like missing work or stealing.
Covert tests: Measure traits indirectly, like honesty, kindness, or emotional stability.
Example: A company hiring a bank teller might prefer someone with high conscientiousness and low impulsivity.
What are the two types of personality tests used in hiring?
➡ 1. Overt Tests – Directly ask about counterproductive behaviors like theft or absenteeism.
➡ 2. Covert Tests – Measure traits indirectly linked to behavior, like honesty or emotional stability.
✅ Example: A retail store might use an overt test to check if an applicant has stolen in previous jobs.
What is the main ethical concern with personality testing in hiring?
To avoid discrimination based on race, gender, religion, or other protected characteristics.
✅ Example: A company shouldn’t reject a candidate just because they are introverted unless the role requires extroversion.
What is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), and why is it unreliable?
MBTI classifies people into rigid personality types but lacks scientific validity.
Created for profit – The MBTI industry makes millions, despite lacking strong scientific support.
Not developed by experts – Created by two non-psychologists (Katherine Briggs & Isabel Myers) based on Carl Jung’s theories.
Oversimplifies personality – Categorizes people into only 16 types (e.g., “Extraverted Thinker”), forcing complex traits into rigid categories.
Ignores personality as a spectrum – In reality, most people fall in the middle of traits (e.g., someone might be 50% extroverted and 50% introverted).
Lacks predictive validity – It does not reliably predict job performance or success.
Example: An MBTI “extrovert” might still struggle in sales if they lack assertiveness.
✅ Example: Someone classified as an “extrovert” may still struggle in public speaking, proving MBTI is oversimplified.
Why do people still use MBTI?
It is simple, attractive, and easy to understand, making it popular despite lacking scientific support.
✅ Example: Businesses use MBTI in team-building exercises, even though it doesn’t predict job performance.
Unlike MBTI, HPI is backed by scientific research. Why is it better?
Developed by an expert – Robert Hogan was a psychologist who studied personality scientifically.
Based on the Big Five Model – Uses the widely accepted Five-Factor Model (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism).
Validated through studies – Large-scale research shows HPI can predict job performance and workplace success.
Used for hiring decisions – Many companies use HPI to assess leadership potential and teamwork.
Example: A company hiring a CEO might look for someone high in Conscientiousness and Emotional Stability.
What is Hogan’s Personality Inventory (HPI), and why is it better than MBTI?
HPI is backed by research, uses the Big Five model, and predicts workplace success.
✅ Example: HPI helps identify leadership qualities, making it useful for selecting managers.
What makes a personality test scientifically valid?
✔ Based on research and measures stable traits.
✔ Can predict real-world outcomes.
✅ Example: A scientifically valid test can predict job performance based on conscientiousness.
What is the key difference between MBTI and HPI?
MBTI categorizes people, while HPI measures traits on a scale and predicts job performance.
✅ Example: A high conscientiousness score in HPI suggests reliability at work, whereas MBTI provides only a general personality label.
What is the ultimate goal of personality testing in hiring?
To select employees based on traits that align with job requirements while avoiding bias.
✅ Example: A pilot needs high emotional stability and conscientiousness, so testing should focus on these traits.
What is temperament?
🔹 Definition: Temperament refers to early-emerging, biologically based personality traits that influence emotional responses and arousal.
🔹 Example: A baby who frequently smiles and laughs (positive temperament) may continue to be an outgoing and sociable child.
What is Stability of Temperament During Infancy?
Early Emergence – Individual differences in temperament appear very early in life.
Example: Some babies are naturally more active or irritable than others.
Moderate Stability in First Year – While changes happen, some stability exists.
Example: A baby who cries a lot at 3 months may still be more reactive at 12 months.
Short-Term vs. Long-Term Stability – Traits remain stable over short periods but may change over long intervals.
Example: A baby who is always smiling at 6 months might be different at age 5.
Increasing Stability – As infants grow, their temperament becomes more stable.
Example: A child who is naturally shy at 2 years old might still be reserved at 6 years old.
Do personality traits appear early in life?
✅ Yes, stable individual differences emerge very early in life.
🔹 Example: Some babies are naturally more active, irritable, or calm than others.
Can early activity level predict future personality?
✅ Yes, but predictability decreases over time.
🔹 Example: A highly energetic toddler may become a hyperactive child but could calm down as a teenager.
Is aggression stable in childhood?
✅ Yes! Aggression stays somewhat stable appears early (as young as age 3) and remains stable over time.
🔹 Example: A child who frequently hits others in preschool is more likely to struggle with aggression in adulthood.
What is Rank Order Stability?
If people are ranked based on personality traits, their position remains relatively stable.
Studies using self-reports indicate moderate to high stability in the Big Five traits.
Stability increases with age:
Teen years: +0.47 correlation
Twenties: +0.57
Thirties: +0.62
Fifties: +0.75
Example: A person who is more introverted than most people at 20 is likely to remain more introverted at 40.
What is Mean Level Stability?
🔹 On average, personality traits stay stable, but small shifts occur:
📉 Openness, Extraversion, and Neuroticism decrease with age.
📈 Conscientiousness and Agreeableness increase over time.
🔹 Example: A highly neurotic teenager may become calmer by middle age.
Can personality change through therapy?
✅ Yes! Therapy and life experiences can modify personality traits.
🔹 Example: A drug rehabilitation program can lead to decreased Neuroticism and increased Conscientiousness & Agreeableness.
What is an example of personality change through life experiences?
Example: A shy college student (low Extraversion) who takes on leadership roles in a job may become more outgoing over time.
How does self-esteem change with age?
Self-esteem remains relatively stable over time, but there may be fluctuations depending on life events and experiences.
Example: A teenager might struggle with low self-esteem, but as they gain life experience and success, their self-confidence may increase in adulthood.
How do autonomy, dominance, leadership, and ambition change with age?
These traits tend to increase in young adulthood as individuals take on more responsibilities but may decrease in older age as priorities shift.
Example: A college student becoming more independent and ambitious in their career, but later in life focusing more on work-life balance.
Does sensation seeking increase or decrease over time?
Sensation-seeking behaviors peak in late adolescence (18-20 years old) and tend to decline with age as people prioritize stability and safety.
Example: A teenager may enjoy extreme sports or risky activities, but as they grow older, they might prefer safer hobbies like hiking.
How do personality traits differ across generations?
Cultural, societal, and historical changes influence personality traits in different generations.
Example: Women in the 1950s were expected to take domestic roles, but today, more women pursue higher education and leadership positions.
Are younger generations more narcissistic than older generations?
There is an ongoing debate about whether younger generations show more narcissistic traits due to social media and societal changes.
Example: Some studies suggest that modern youth seek more validation online, but this does not necessarily mean they are more narcissistic than past generations.
What personality traits predict marital dissatisfaction and divorce?
Neuroticism (emotional instability, anxiety, mood swings).
Lack of impulse control (acting without thinking, reckless decisions).
Example: Someone who gets anxious easily and overreacts to small problems may create tension in a marriage. A person who impulsively spends money or cheats is also at risk of relationship failure.
Which personality traits are linked to alcoholism, drug use, and emotional disturbance?
High neuroticism (more stress, anxiety, mood swings).
Low agreeableness (less consideration for others, more aggressive behavior).
Low conscientiousness (less self-discipline, risky behavior).
Example: A person with low conscientiousness might party excessively, leading to alcohol or drug addiction.
How do personality traits influence religiosity and spirituality?
High openness: (curious, imaginative, open to new ideas) More likely to explore spirituality and seek deeper meaning.
High agreeableness & conscientiousness: More likely to follow religious teachings.
Example: Someone who is imaginative and loves discussing philosophical ideas may be drawn to spiritual practices.
Which personality traits predict academic achievement?
High conscientiousness (organized, disciplined, hardworking).
Low impulsivity (better focus, avoids distractions).
Grit (perseverance and passion for long-term goals).
Example: A student with high conscientiousness will plan their study schedule and avoid procrastination, leading to better grades.
How does personality influence health and longevity?
Higher extraversion is linked to better health due to positive emotions and social engagement.
Higher agreeableness (low hostility) also contributes to longer life expectancy.
Lower neuroticism is associated with better stress management and fewer health problems.
Example: Someone who is highly conscientious is more likely to follow a healthy diet, exercise, and avoid risky behaviors like smoking.
Does marriage influence personality stability?
Yes! If someone marries a person similar to them in personality, their traits remain stable.
If they marry someone different, their personality may change over time.
Example: An introvert who marries an extrovert may become more social due to their partner’s influence.
