Learning part 3 Flashcards
What is Classical Conditioning?
A type of learning where we make connections between events and start to anticipate consequences.
🎯 Example:
Smelling fresh bread near a bakery makes you hungry because you’ve learned to associate the smell with eating.
What is Cause-and-Effect Relationship?
We learn that some things always go together:
Rain happens when there are clouds in the sky.
A car doesn’t start unless the ignition is turned on.
The brain predicts future events based on past experiences, making life more efficient.
Who was Edwin Twitmyer – The Forgotten Pioneer
An American psychologist who discovered classical conditioning independently of Pavlov.
🎯 Experiment:
Twitmyer was testing the knee-jerk reflex by tapping students’ knees after ringing a bell.
After many trials, just the bell made the students’ knees jerk—without the tap!
🚀 Key Takeaway:
This was accidental proof that learning happens by association—but Twitmyer’s work was ignored at the time.
Who was Pavlov?
A Russian scientist who made classical conditioning famous with his dog salivation experiment.
🎯 Experiment:
Before conditioning: A bell rings → No reaction from dog.
During conditioning: Bell rings before food is given → Dog salivates due to food.
After conditioning: Bell rings alone → Dog salivates automatically.
🚀 Key Takeaway:
The bell (neutral stimulus) became a trigger (conditioned stimulus) for salivation after learning.
Explain the different terms of unconditioned and conditioned
Unconditioned Stimulus (US) – Something that naturally triggers a reaction. (Food)
Unconditioned Response (UR) – A natural reaction to the US. (Salivation to food)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – Something that used to be neutral but gains meaning. (Bell)
Conditioned Response (CR) – The learned reaction. (Salivating at the bell)
What did Vul’fson & Snarskii discover?
Before Pavlov, they noticed dogs would drool at the sight of food before eating it.
🎯 Experiment:
Dogs were given different substances (wet food, dry food, sand).
After repeated exposure, they started salivating just from seeing the food, before it was even in their mouths.
🚀 Key Takeaway:
The brain predicts events based on experience—conditioning happens naturally!
Why Was Pavlov’s Work Important? And Why does classical conditioning matter?
It explains how we develop habits, fears, and cravings in everyday life.
🎯 Real-Life Examples:
Phone vibrating → You expect a message.
Hearing your full name → You expect you’re in trouble.
Smelling popcorn at the movies → You start craving it before seeing it.
🚀 Key Takeaway:
Pavlov turned learning into science—showing we don’t just react to the world, we predict it!
Little Albert Experiment. What happened?
A baby named Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud, scary noise. The US became associated with the CS.
Initially, Little Albert had no fear of the rat.
However, he was naturally scared of loud noises (this is an unconditioned response).
Every time Albert saw the rat, the researchers made a loud noise behind his head.
After just a few trials, Albert started to fear the rat—even without the noise.
What is Conditioned Suppression?
When animals or people stop a behavior after associating it with something unpleasant.
Example of Conditioned Suppression
💡 Experiment:
Rats were trained to drink water.
A tone played before a shock.
Result: Rats stopped drinking when they heard the tone.
The Thirsty Rat Experiment (Conditioned Suppression)
At first, the rat drinks normally.
But after a few trials, it stops drinking when it hears the tone.
Why? Because it learns that the tone predicts a shock—so it suppresses its behavior.
🔑 Key Takeaways:
Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Electric shock
Unconditioned Response (UR): Stopping drinking
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Tone
Conditioned Response (CR): Stopping drinking when the tone plays
How can Eyeblink be Conditioned?
A study showing how reflexes (like blinking) can be conditioned by associating a tone with an air puff.
A puff of air (US) was blown into people’s eyes.
Before the air puff, a tone (NS) was played.
After multiple trials, people started blinking at the sound of the tone—even when no air puff was given!
Our brains learn to predict danger and prepare us in advance
How the experiment worked:
Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Air puff
Unconditioned Response (UR): Blinking
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Tone
Conditioned Response (CR): Blinking at the tone
What is Sign Tracking?
A behavior where animals approach signals (like lights) that predict rewards (like food).
9️⃣ Example of Sign Tracking
💡 Experiment:
Pigeons were trained to expect food when a light turned on.
The light was the first signal that food was coming.
Instead of waiting by the food tray, they pecked at the light itself.
What is Conditioned Taste Aversion?
A strong learned avoidance of a food that previously caused illness.
Example of Taste Aversion
💡 Experiment:
Rats were given sweet water.
Later, they were made sick with a toxin.
Result: Rats avoided sweet water, even if the sickness came hours later.
What is Taste Aversion?
A special type of classical conditioning where an organism learns to avoid a food after experiencing sickness or discomfort.
2️⃣ Real-Life Example of Taste Aversion
💡 Example:
You eat seafood and get sick.
Next time you see seafood, you feel nauseous and avoid it, even if seafood wasn’t the real cause.
Taste Aversion Can Happen in One Trial
About 20% of cases, people are certain their illness wasn’t from the food they ate, but their brain still forms an aversion.
Is nausea necesarry for aversion?
Nausea is not necessary for the development of food aversions.
Imagine you eat strawberry yogurt, and a few hours later, you get food poisoning from a completely different source (like undercooked chicken).
🔹 Even though the yogurt wasn’t the real cause, your brain automatically associates the yogurt with getting sick.
🔹 Next time you see, smell, or think about strawberry yogurt, you feel nauseous or disgusted.
🔹 This happens even if you don’t consciously connect the two or don’t remember the exact moment you got sick.
🚀 Key Takeaway:
Your body learns the aversion automatically, without needing your conscious awareness or logical reasoning.
What is the intertrial interval (ITI), and why is it important in classical conditioning?
Intertrial Interval (ITI): The time between the end of one conditioning trial and the start of the next, allowing the subject time to process and consolidate learning before the next pairing of stimuli.
Importance:
A longer ITI improves learning by reducing interference between trials.
Helps the subject distinguish separate conditioning events
What is the interstimulus interval (ISI), and how does it affect learning?
Interstimulus Interval (ISI): The time between the presentation of the CS (e.g., bell) and the US (e.g., food).
Key Rule: The ISI should be shorter than the ITI for effective conditioning.
Typical Timing:
ISI is usually less than 1 minute.
ITI is often 5 minutes or more.
🚀 Why It Matters:
Short CS-US timing strengthens learning, while long gaps can weaken associations.
Garcia & Koelling (1966) Experiment
💡 What happened?
Rats drank sweet water.
Later, they were exposed to radiation that made them sick.
Result: The rats refused to drink sweet water again, even though the sweetness didn’t cause the sickness.
Radiation exposure 12 hours after taste stimulus led to less aversion, and after 24 hours hardly any aversion.
Can Taste Aversion Happen in One Trial?
Unlike regular classical conditioning, taste aversion can develop after just one bad experience.
What is Excitatory Pavlovian Conditioning?
A form of classical conditioning where a stimulus predicts the arrival of something important and triggers a response.
2️⃣ Example of Excitatory Conditioning
💡 Example:
Hearing a doorbell before food delivery makes you feel hungry over time.
What is the Key Components of Excitatory Conditioning?
A neutral stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) to produce a learned response (CR).
Why is this the Best Conditioning Method: Short-Delayed Conditioning?
CS starts just before the US and overlaps slightly.
Produces strong learning.
🎯 Example:
Hearing thunder shortly before seeing lightning.
What is Trace Conditioning
CS stops before the US appears.
Requires memory to form an association.
🎯 Example:
Hearing a school bell but lunch isn’t served for a few minutes.
What is Long-Delayed Conditioning?
CS lasts a long time before the US appears.
Weaker learning because of the long delay.
🎯 Example:
Waiting a long time before getting a pop quiz after an announcement.
Simultaneous Conditioning
CS and US happen at the same time.
Weak learning because there’s no prediction involved.
🎯 Example:
If fireworks explode at the same time as the flash, you don’t get a chance to expect the explosion from the flash.
Backward Conditioning?
US happens before the CS.
Very weak learning because the CS doesn’t predict anything.
🎯 Example:
Giving a dog food first and then ringing a bell.
Why Do We Need Control Groups?
💡 Fact:
Control groups are used to make sure learning is happening because of conditioning and not by chance.
What is the purpose of control groups in classical conditioning?
Control groups help scientists check if learning is real or just a random response.
Sometimes, a stimulus (like food) naturally increases arousal, making an animal respond more to a neutral cue without actual learning—this is called sensitization.
Sensitization is NOT real conditioning because no association is formed between the CS and US.
🚀 Key Idea: Control groups separate real learning from other effects like arousal or random responses.
What is the Best Conditioning Method for Fear Learning?
Short-delay conditioning is the most effective for learning fear responses.
The subject learns the CS predicts the US, so it can prepare.
Short-delay works best (e.g., a tone before a shock makes animals freeze)
In simunta:
Example:
If a dog hears a bell and sees food at the same time, it doesn’t need to associate them—it just reacts to the food.
📌 Why is it ineffective?
The CS does not predict the US, so the brain doesn’t form a strong association.
🚀 Special Case in Fear Conditioning:
Instead of freezing, subjects tend to try to escape or flee in simultaneous fear conditioning.
Why does Timing of CS and US Matters?
The closer the timing between CS and US, the stronger the learning.
What’s the Best Conditioning Method?
The best method depends on what’s being learned:
✅ Fear Conditioning → Short-delay works best (e.g., a tone before a shock makes animals freeze).
✅ Memory-Based Learning → Trace conditioning works (e.g., remembering where you parked your car).
✅ General Conditioning → Short-delay and trace conditioning work well.
What is Inhibitory Pavlovian Conditioning?
A form of classical conditioning where a stimulus signals that an expected event (US) will NOT happen.
Example: Feeling Safe Around a Friend
💡 Example:
If a bully only bothers you when your friend isn’t around, you learn that your friend’s presence means safety.
Give Real-Life Examples of Inhibitory Conditioning
Example 1: “Closed” or “No Entry” Signs
When we see an “Open” sign, we expect to enter a place.
But when we see “Closed,” we know we cannot enter—our past learning makes us inhibit our usual response of trying to go in.
🔹 Example 2: “Out of Petrol” at a Gas Station
We expect gas stations to have petrol.
Seeing an “Out of Petrol” sign only makes sense if we first expected petrol to be available.
If we didn’t already associate petrol stations with petrol, the sign wouldn’t mean anything to us.
🚀 Key Idea: Inhibitory learning is only meaningful if there was a prior expectation for the event to occur.
The “Closed” or “Out of Petrol” signs act as CS⁻ (inhibitory stimuli).
They don’t just appear randomly—they make sense because we’ve learned what to expect from those situations.
Inhibitory conditioning only works if the CS (e.g., a sign) was previously associated with the presence of the US (e.g., petrol, an open store).
📌 Example: If you saw an “Out of Petrol” sign at a bakery, it wouldn’t make sense because you never expected petrol there in the first place.
What is the example with the red light stop? CS+ and CS-
Red Light & Police Officer
💡 Example:
A red light means stop (CS⁺), but if a police officer signals you to go (CS⁻), you ignore the red light.
The police officer’s signal (CS⁻) tells you that the usual danger (US) is NOT happening.
👉 The red light = stop (CS⁺),
👉 The officer = safety (CS⁻) because danger is absent.
🚀 Key Idea: Our brains use inhibitory learning to know when it’s safe to ignore a normal warning sign.
Pavlov’s Inhibitory Conditioning What happened?
Dogs learned that a light meant food would NOT come, so they stopped salivating when the light was on.
A dog hears a bell (CS+) and sees a light (CS-) together.
Normally, the bell means food is coming, but whenever the light is on, food does NOT appear.
Eventually, the dog learns that the light means “no food,” even if the bell rings.
📌 Key Idea: The presence of CS- cancels out the expectation created by CS+.
What is Standard Inhibitory Conditioning?
A CS⁺ predicts an event, but a CS⁻ signals that the event will NOT happen.
🎯 Example:
A substitute teacher (CS⁻) means no strict rules compared to the regular teacher (CS⁺)
What are bidirectional responses, and why is inhibition easier to observe in them?
Bidirectional responses are behaviors that can naturally increase or decrease, making it easy to see both excitation and inhibition.
Examples:
Heart rate → Excitation increases heart rate, inhibition decreases it.
Breathing rate → Excitation speeds up breathing, inhibition slows it down.
Drinking behavior → Excitation increases drinking, inhibition reduces it.
Why is inhibition easy to measure?
Since these responses naturally move in two directions, inhibition is clearly seen when the response goes the opposite way from excitation.
Why is inhibition harder to observe in non-bidirectional responses?
Some behaviors don’t have a clear opposite, so inhibition doesn’t create a reverse effect—it just reduces or stops the response.
Examples:
Freezing in fear → An inhibitory CS doesn’t make the subject move more, it just freezes less.
Blinking to a fearful stimulus → An inhibitory CS doesn’t make someone blink less than normal, it just stops extra blinking.
Key Issue: Since we can’t measure an opposite reaction, scientists use indirect tests (like the Compound-Stimulus Test) to detect inhibition.
What is negative Correlation Procedure?
A CS⁻ occurs alone, signaling that the US is less likely to happen.
🎯 Example:
A teacher being present (CS⁻) means no bullying will occur.
Suppose an animal is given food (US) at random intervals.
But every time a light (CS) turns on, no food appears.
Over time, the animal learns that the light predicts the absence of food.
The light becomes a conditioned inhibitor—a signal that prevents expectations of food.
Compound-Stimulus Test (Summation Test)
💡 Definition:
If a CS⁻ predicts the absence of something, it should cancel out a CS⁺ that predicts it.
Example in an Experiment:
Rats hear a tone (CS⁺) → they freeze in fear because it predicts a shock.
Rats hear a tone + a light (CS⁻) → they stop freezing.
The light (CS⁻) cancels out the fear response!
🎯 Example:
A flashlight cancels fear of the dark.
What is Retardation of Acquisition Test?
If a CS⁻ signals safety, it should take longer to turn it into a CS⁺ predicting danger.
Example in an Experiment:
A tone (CS⁻) was previously a safety signal.
Later, it was paired with a shock (US).
The rats took longer to learn fear because their brain already associated the tone with safety.
🎯 Example:
If you always felt safe at your grandma’s house, it would take longer to associate it with fear, even if something bad happened there.
What was the goal of Cole et al.’s (1997) compound-stimulus procedure, and how was it conducted?
The study tested whether a conditioned inhibitor (X-) could reduce fear responses in rats.
Fear was measured using a lick-suppression procedure (rats drink less when afraid).
A+ (light + shock) created fear, while AX- (light + tone, no shock) created safety.
If X- was a true inhibitor, it should reduce fear when paired with A or B
What did the results of the study show, and why are they important?
Rats froze less and drank more when X- (tone) was present.
This confirmed X- acted as a safety signal, reducing fear.
A control stimulus (Y) ensured the effect was due to learned inhibition, not novelty.
Key Takeaway: Inhibitory conditioning can override fear, showing how safety cues reduce anxiety.
The control tone (Y) did not have the same effect, confirming that inhibition was learned and not due to novelty
What makes an effective CS and US pairing?
✔ The CS should be distinct (not weak or irrelevant).
✔ Timing matters (CS should happen just before US).
✔ Predictability (CS must consistently predict the US).
Q: Why is timing important in classical conditioning?
If the CS appears too early or too late, it won’t form a strong association with the US.
What is latent inhibition?
When a familiar CS is harder to associate with a US because the brain already ignores it.
✅ Example: If you’ve heard a ringtone every day, then try to link it to food, your brain ignores it because it already decided it’s unimportant.
How does latent inhibition slow down learning?
If a stimulus has been repeatedly experienced without consequences, your brain filters it out.
✅ Example: If you pass by a bakery every day and never buy anything, it takes longer to associate the smell with hunger.
How does Sherlock Holmes demonstrate low latent inhibition?
He notices small details that most people filter out, which makes him a better detective.
✅ Example: Most people ignore background noises, but Holmes pays attention to everything.
What is higher-order conditioning?
When a previously learned CS is used to condition a new CS, without the original US being present.
✅ Example:
1️⃣ A woman is pushed in a crowd (CS1) → Injury (US) → Fear (CR).
2️⃣ Crowds (CS1) now cause fear.
3️⃣ Later, she associates cinemas (CS2) with crowds (CS1).
4️⃣ Now, she fears cinemas (CS2), even though she was never injured there!
How does higher-order conditioning explain irrational fears or positive emotions?
A harmless event (e.g., cinemas) can become feared because it is linked to a previously learned fear (e.g., crowds).
✅ Example: A child first fears a loud vacuum (CS1). Then, they see a toy vacuum (CS2) and start fearing that too!
Kids love money because it buys them toys, candy, and fun things (CS1 → US).
If a child’s uncle gives them money every time they visit, the uncle (CS2) becomes associated with positive emotions.
Now, even when the uncle doesn’t give money, the child feels happy around him.
🔹 Lesson: Higher-order conditioning applies to both fears and positive emotions!
How is sensory pre-conditioning different from higher-order conditioning?
Higher-order conditioning: CS1 → CS2 → CR AFTER US is introduced.
Sensory pre-conditioning: CS1 & CS2 are linked BEFORE any US is introduced.
1️⃣ You often eat cinnamon (CS1) and vanilla (CS2) together in desserts.
2️⃣ Your brain links them before anything bad happens.
3️⃣ One day, cinnamon (CS1) makes you sick (US) → Now you avoid cinnamon.
4️⃣ Even though vanilla (CS2) never made you sick, you avoid it too!
Why does sensory pre-conditioning happen?
Your brain groups related things together, so if one becomes bad, the others seem bad too.
✅ Example: If you always listen to a song while driving and then get into a car crash, you might feel uneasy whenever you hear that song, even though the song itself wasn’t dangerous.
What Determines the Nature of a Conditioned Response (CR)? What did Jenkins & Moore (1973) find about CR differences in pigeons?
A: The nature of the unconditioned stimulus (US) determines the form of the CR.
🔹 Example:
Food (US) → Causes salivation (UR), not an eye blink.
Air puff to the eye (US) → Causes eye blink (UR), not salivation
The CR depends on the type of US used in conditioning.
🔹 Example:
When pigeons were given grain (US), they pecked with an open beak.
When given water (US), they lowered their beak into the water and opened it to drink.
What happens when a key light (CS) predicts food vs. water for pigeons?
The CR resembles the UR.
🔹 Example:
Food-predicting key (CS) → Fast pecking with an open beak.
Water-predicting key (CS) → Slower pecking with a closed beak.
💡 Conclusion: The CR is shaped by the specific US it is associated with.
What did Grant (1975) discover about the role of the conditioned stimulus (CS)?
The nature of the CS also affects the CR.
🔹 Example:
Food (US) normally causes biting and gnawing (UR).
But when another rat was the CS, the CR was social behaviors like sniffing and approaching, not biting.
💡 Conclusion: The CS itself influences the form of the CR, not just the US.
What is the difference between S-R Learning and S-S Learning?
S-R Learning: The CS directly triggers a CR (CS → CR).
S-S Learning: The CS activates the memory of the US, which then triggers a CR (CS → US → CR).
🔹 Example:
S-R: You hear a ringtone (CS) and automatically reach for your phone (CR).
S-S: You hear a ringtone (CS), it reminds you of an important call (US), which makes you feel anxious (CR).
What is blocking in classical conditioning?
Blocking occurs when a previously learned CS (CS-A) prevents learning of a new CS (CS-B) because the US is no longer surprising.
🔹 Example:
If you always hear a tone before food, your brain expects food.
If a light appears with the tone, you ignore it, because the tone already predicts food.
💡 Key Idea: New learning happens when something unexpected occurs!
If something is already predicted, your brain doesn’t bother learning a new association.
🔹 For new learning to happen, there must be a surprise!
That’s why unexpected things—like a fire alarm suddenly going off—grab your attention and form strong memories.
What is the surprise factor (λ - V) in learning?
Learning happens when there is a difference between what occurs (λ) and what is expected (V).
🔹 Mathematical Explanation:
λ (Reality) = What actually happens (food arrives).
V (Expectation) = What was expected (how much the CS predicts the US).
(λ - V) = Surprise Factor (How much learning occurs).
🔹 Example:
Early training: Big difference (food is unexpected) → Fast learning.
Later trials: Expectation catches up to reality → Slower learning.
💡 Final Conclusion: The more surprising something is, the faster learning happens
What does the Rescorla-Wagner Model say about learning?
Learning happens when the US is surprising (not expected).
🔹 Example:
If you expect a small gift for your birthday but get a car, you’re very surprised!
If you expect a big gift and get a big gift, there’s no surprise → No new learning.
Why does learning start fast but slow down over time?
At first, expectation (V) is low, so the difference between reality (λ) and expectation (V) is large → Fast learning.
Over time, expectation (V) matches reality (λ) → No new learning.
🔹 Example:
If a fire alarm randomly goes off, you pay attention (unexpected).
If the fire alarm rings every day at 2 PM, you start ignoring it (expected).
💡 Once something becomes predictable, you stop paying attention to it.
