Developmental Psychology I: infancy and childhood part 2 Flashcards
What was John Locke’s view on child development?
Children are born as a “blank slate” (tabula rasa).
All traits and behaviors come from experience and environment (nurture).
What was Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s theory?
Development occurs naturally in pre-set stages.
Children are “noble savages”—pure at birth but shaped by society.
💡 Analogy:
A seed will grow into a tree naturally if given the right conditions, but its shape is influenced by the environment.
What was the first scientific study of child development?
Tiedemann (1787) recorded biographies of infants—documenting children’s milestones in sensory, motor, cognitive, and language behavior.
💡 Analogy:
Like tracking an experiment, early scientists recorded child development to find patterns.
How did Charles Darwin contribute to developmental psychology?
Applied evolutionary theory to children’s behavior.
Suggested that children’s development mirrors species evolution.
🔹 Example:
Just as species evolve to adapt and survive, children develop walking, talking, and problem-solving skills over time.
What did Preyer (1841-1897) contribute?
Introduced scientific observation of children.
Helped establish child development as a scientific discipline.
What was Francis Galton’s major idea?
Tried to apply evolutionary principles to human intelligence.
Coined the term “nature vs. nurture”—studying whether intelligence is inherited or shaped by the environment.
💡 Analogy:
Intelligence is like a plant—the seed (genes) determines its potential, but water and sunlight (environment) affect how it grows.
Who is considered the “Father of the Children’s Study Movement”?
G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924)
First to study adolescence as a unique stage of development.
🔹 Example:
Before Hall, people only recognized childhood and adulthood. He showed that teenagers have their own developmental challenges.
What did Sigmund Freud contribute to developmental psychology?
Stressed early childhood experiences as the foundation of adult personality.
His daughter Anna Freud and Melanie Klein extended his work in child psychoanalysis.
🔹 Example:
A child who experiences neglect may develop trust issues later in life.
What is the extension of compulsory schooling and the movement for educational renewal? Early 20th Century
Importance of getting to know the child in order to carry out the educational task.
How did Maria Montessori revolutionize education? Early 20th Century
Child-centered learning—allowing children to learn at their own pace.
method for early childhood education,based on activities chosen by the child himself, in a carefully prepared environment that motivates orderly progress from simple to complex tasks.
🔹 Example:
Instead of forcing a child to read, the Montessori method lets them explore letters through play.
What was the first IQ test? Early 20th Century
Binet & Simon (1905) developed the first intelligence test to measure children’s mental abilities.
🔹 Example:
Schools still use IQ tests today to assess students’ learning needs.
What was John Watson’s main theory? Early 20th Century
Behaviorism—claimed that learning shapes behavior more than genetics.
🔹 Quote:
“Give me a dozen healthy infants, and I can train them to become any profession I choose.”
🔹 Example:
If a child is praised for doing homework, they’re more likely to repeat the behavior.
What are the three major paradigms in developmental psychology?
Mechanistic (Continuist) Paradigm – Development is like a machine (stimulus-response learning).
Organicist Paradigm – Humans actively build their own knowledge.
Dialectical Paradigm – Development happens through social interaction.
What is the Mechanistic Paradigm? And Who were the key figures in the Mechanistic Paradigm?
Inspired by John Locke.
Views humans as machines—we learn by reacting to stimuli.
🔹 Example:
If a child gets candy for finishing homework, they will do it again (reinforcement).
Development as a passive and predictable response to stimuli; as the sum of quantitative changes (learning). The existence of qualitative changes is denied.*They see man as a machine that reacts to environmental stimuli.
Key figures:
Thorndike (Law of Effect)
Pavlov (Classical Conditioning)
Watson (Behaviorism)
Skinner (Operant Conditioning)
What is the Organicist Paradigm? Give example of a qualitative change in learning?
Inspired by Jean Piaget.
Humans are active learners who construct their own knowledge.
Development happens in stages with qualitative changes.
Human being as a living and active organism, goal-oriented and that builds its knowledge from its activity on reality.The person initiates the events and doesn’t just react to them.
Example:
A child doesn’t just memorize more words—they begin to understand abstract concepts like fairness.
What are Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development?
Sensorimotor (0-2 yrs) → Learning through senses & movement.
Preoperational (2-7 yrs) → Symbolic thinking, egocentric.
Concrete Operational (7-11 yrs) → Logical thinking, conservation.
Formal Operational (12+ yrs) → Abstract & hypothetical thinking.
🔹 Example:
A 7-year-old realizes that a tall glass doesn’t hold more water than a short wide one.
What is the Dialectical Paradigm? What is Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)?
Inspired by Vygotsky & Bronfenbrenner.
Social interaction is the key driver of development.
Learning happens in social and cultural contexts.
Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):
The gap between what a child can do alone vs. with help.
A child learns best when guided by a teacher or peer (scaffolding).
Midwaypoint:Development is brought about by both qualitative and quantitative changes. Development is a process of change, multidirectional and multidimensional throughout the entire life cycle.The engine of development is social interactions and overcoming conflicts.
What does The psychology of human development include? (Theories)
These theories explain how personality and behaviour develops across the lifespan. Some of the most influential perspectives in the study of human development are:
1.
The psychodynamic perspective
2.
The behavioural perspective
3.
The contextual perspective
4.
The cognitive perspective
5.
The ethological and evolutionary viewpoints
What is Psychodynamic Perspective? (fx. Freud!!)
The psychodynamic perspective views behaviour as motivated by internal forces, memories and conflicts of which a person has little awareness or control.
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These inner forces may originate in childhood and can influence behaviour and traits throughout the lifespan.
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E.g. trauma suffered in early childhood may somehow affect how relationships are formed in adulthood.
What is freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory (in Psychodynamic perspective)
Childhood experiences and link them to the construction of adult personality.
Development was contemplated as a possible way to explain adulthood psychopathology.
He formulated 5 models:
*Topographic model
*Dynamic model
*Economic model
*Structural model
*Genetic model
Development was contemplated as a possible way to explain adulthood psychopathology.
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Psychoanalytic theory suggests that unconscious ‘forces’ determine personality and behaviour:
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The unconscious is a part of personality people are unaware of, and contains the desires and needs that motivate behaviour
Explain Psychodynamic models: S. Freud
Topographic model
Conscious: located towards the outside world, it is responsible for cognitive processes, motor control, and the relationship with the outside world. These contents can be updated and self-perceived by the subject.
*Preconscious: It’s the intermediate system. Its contents are not present in the field of consciousness, but they are accessible. The contents are susceptible to consciousness with an effort of attention on the part of the subject.
*Unconscious: It includes primitive memories, sensations, fantasies, and impulses that are not easily accessible to consciousness
Psychodynamic models: S. Freud
Dynamic model
Human behavior is driven by innate internal forces called Drives.
Dynamic Internal System: Conflicts arise from the need to reduce tension and inhibit instinctual impulses.
Freud’s Two Main Drives
1️⃣ Life Drive (Eros) – Sexual Drive or Libido
Motivates survival, reproduction, pleasure, and creativity.
2️⃣ Death Drive (Thanatos) – Aggressive Drive
Represents aggression, destruction, and risk-taking behaviors.
Psychodynamic models: S. Freud
Structural model
1️⃣ Id (Instinctual, Unconscious) – “Pleasure Seeker”
Present from birth
Repository of biological unconscious drives: sex, hunger, aggression
Operates on the “Pleasure Principle”:
Seeks immediate gratification of needs
Avoids tension and discomfort
2️⃣ Ego (Rational, Conscious) – “Reality Mediator”
Develops within a few months (Freud believed we are not born with an ego)
Regulates the Id’s impulses based on reality
Operates on the “Reality Principle”:
Balances the primitive urges of the Id with the demands of society
Delays gratification to function in the real world
3️⃣ Superego (Moral, Social) – “The Conscience”
Develops between ages 6-12
Represents morality and social norms
Learned from: parents, teachers, cultural values
Acts as an internal judge of right and wrong
⚖ Example: Feeling guilty after lying, even when no one finds out.
What does it mean with “semi-permeable boundaries” in S. Freud´s Structural model?
These structures work together but have semi-permeable boundaries—meaning one can influence the others, but not entirely control them.
1️⃣ Birth – No Ego, Only Sensation?
At birth, the Ego does not exist.
The baby only feels satisfaction or frustration depending on tension levels (e.g., hunger, discomfort).
Total Indifferentiation:
The child does not recognize a boundary between self and others.
No awareness of objects or people as separate entities.
💭 Analogy: A newborn doesn’t understand that their mother is a separate person—only that comfort comes when she is near.
What is meant with primary and secondary narcism in freuds Structural model?
Primary Narcissism (Self-Centered Stage):
Entire libido (energy) is focused on oneself.
The child has no concept of other people as separate beings—only their own needs and feelings matter.
👶 Example: A baby cries for food, not realizing the caregiver may not be immediately available.
Secondary Narcissism (Seeking Admiration):
The child recognizes adults as powerful figures.
Desire to win approval from caregivers.
Fundamental need: To be loved by adults.
💡 Example: A toddler showing off a new skill (“Look what I can do!”) to gain praise from parents.
What is the Differentiation of “I” vs. “Non-I” in freuds Structural model?
Differentiation of “I” vs. “Non-I”
As the child grows, they develop a clear distinction between self and others.
Begins to recognize people and objects as separate from themselves.
🔄 Key Process:
The Ego emerges from the Id and external reality (social demands).
The child learns to regulate desires based on societal rules.
Psychodynamic models: S. Freud
Genetic or sequential model
Genetic or sequential model. The personality develops in the course of an invariable sequence of universal stages characterized by intrapsychic conflict.Conflicts:
o
Satisfaction-frustration conflict (1styear)
o
Conflict of authority-rebellion (2ndyear)
o
Oedipal Conflict (3-5years)
biologically preprogrammed stages.
What happens when a person gets “stuck” in a developmental stage?
When there is a difficulty in moving on to the next stage, libido (energy) is left in the previous stage. →For S. Freud, this is fixation, which gives rise to the different types of character in adults.
Fixation: The person remains emotionally or behaviorally attached to an earlier stage.
Regression: Under stress, a person may revert to behaviors from a previous stage.
What are Freud five stages of psychosexual development with the intrapsychic conflict?
Freud proposed five stages of psychosexual development, each centered around resolving a key conflict:
Oral Stage (0-1 year)
- The focus is on the mouth (sucking, biting, chewing).
- Conflict: Satisfaction-frustration conflict (Weaning).
- Gratification: Sucking, eating, mouthing, biting.
Anal Stage (2-3 years)
- The focus is on bowel and bladder control.
- Conflict: Authority-Rebellion Conflict (Sphincter control, self-regulation).
- Gratification: Pleasure from expelling or withholding feces.
Phallic Stage (3-6 years)
- The focus is on the genital area.
- Conflict: Oedipal Conflict (Internalization of cultural norms and values, leading to superego development).
- Gratification: Curiosity about genitals and identification with parents.
Latency Period (6 years to puberty)
- Sexual desires are repressed.
- No major psychosexual conflict.
- Focus shifts to school, cognitive development, and social skills.
Genital Stage (Adolescence+)
- Maturation of sexual interests into adulthood.
- No major psychosexual conflict.
- Gratification: Developing romantic and sexual relationships.
What is the main driving force for plesure/pain in freuds Genetic or sequential model?
Personality is determined by how conflict between maximising pleasure and minimising pain is resolved in each stage of psychosexual development
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The main driving force behind the pleasure-pain conflict is not motivation to gratify hunger and thirst, but to gratify sexual needs: this driving force is the libido (hence ‘psychosexual’ development).
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How these needs are gratified is different at each stage of development
PsychodynamicModels: Post-FreudianPerspectives–Anna Freud
Anna Freud expanded on her father’s (Sigmund Freud’s) ideas, but she paid special attention to how children grow, think, and protect themselves emotionally.
Anna Freud argued that children are interested in themselves, not just in influencing adults. This is important: instead of just thinking kids behave to get adult approval, she emphasized they have internal motivations from the start.
What is Anna Freuds Multilineal theory?
Multilineal theory:
Unlike Freud’s one-size-fits-all stage model, Anna introduced the idea of multiple “lines of development.”
Analogy: Imagine child development like a train with several tracks — each track is a skill or area (like emotional control, social bonding, or physical regulation). Some trains go faster than others, and not all follow the same schedule.
This model was more flexible than Freud’s psychosexual stages and better for clinical evaluation of children.
What is line of development in Anna Freuds post freudian perspective?
Line of development:
A line of development is an activity or skill that:
Evolves over time
Moves in stages
Shows a new balance of drive and structure (meaning a better integration of inner desires and self-control)
What is the six main lines Anna freud represented in her line of development?
Anna identified six main lines:
From Dependency → Emotional Self-Reliance & Adult Relationships
From Suckling → Rational Eating
From Wetting/Soiling → Bladder/Bowel Control
From Irresponsibility → Responsibility in body management
From Egocentricity → Friendship (capacity to relate socially)
Occupation line: Deals with capacity to play and work. Body → play; play → work (child’s capacity to engage with the world productively)
What the two mechanisms happening in adolescence according to Anna Freud?
Adolescence: Emotional Storm Zone 🌪️
During adolescence, there’s an “avalanche” of new sexual and aggressive urges.
Kids now need strategies to manage these intense feelings, so two defense mechanisms are common:
Asceticism (austerity): Trying to reject physical pleasure, e.g. extreme dieting, over-exercise
Intellectualization: Using abstract thought to cope — e.g., thinking about “what love is” instead of feeling heartbreak
What is Melanie Klein: Object Relations Theory?
Melanie Klein had a radically different take from Freud, especially on early childhood.
🔹 Core idea:
We are driven not just by instincts but by a deep need to form relationships — especially with primary caregivers.
“Object” in psychology doesn’t mean a thing — it means a person, usually the mother in infancy.
What is Melanie kleins perspective on the “Ego” and life and death instincs?
The Ego is present from birth:
While Freud thought the Ego develops later, Klein believed babies already have an Ego — the system that helps them feel, perceive, and defend themselves.
🔹 Trauma of birth:
Birth is a shocking, painful experience — Klein called it a “trauma”. Since the ego is already present, the baby feels fear and conflict right away.
🔹 Life and death instincts:
Babies are born with:
A life instinct (to bond, survive, love)
A death instinct (aggression, destruction)
These are needed to build object relations — connections to others.
What is Melanie Kleins perspective on stages?
🔹 Klein rejected “stages”:
She didn’t think development happened in neat stages like Freud. Instead, she thought the child was already capable of fantasy and emotion from birth.
The baby doesn’t need to grow into mental life — it’s already happening.
What is the firdt of the Two Early Emotional “Positions” (Orientations) in kleins theory?
🔷 1. Paranoid-Schizoid Position (0–6 months)
This is a mental/emotional state, not a psychiatric diagnosis.
The baby fantasizes about attacking and destroying the mother (especially the mother’s breast, the first object of desire and frustration)
It fears revenge → enters the paranoid position (defensive fear of being harmed)
Then, the baby splits the mother and itself into “good” and “bad” parts → the schizoid position
In an attaining of reducing anxiety, the child activates two principle defense mechanisms:
Introjection leads to incorporate the good parts of the object into itself, and
Projection involves rejecting the bad parts of the object and the child to the external object.
Good mother – bad mother.
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This introjection and projection then provide the basis for the development of the ego and the superego
What is the second of the Two Early Emotional “Positions” (Orientations) in M´Kleins theroy?
🔷 2. Depressive Position (6–12 months)
The child matures and begins to see the mother as a whole person — not just “good breast” or “bad breast”.
Realizes: the mother can be both loving and frustrating
Feels guilt and sadness for earlier destructive thoughts → this is the depressive position
This emotional capacity marks a major leap in psychological maturity
It’s the beginning of the early Superego (inner moral sense)
Melanie Klein was a pioneer in using play to access children’s unconscious processes — just like adults use words in talk therapy.
Toys = the child’s language
Play = the child’s “free association”
What is Erikson’s psychosocial Theory: The Big Idea
Freud focused heavily on psychosexual development (where biological drives like libido shaped personality), but Erikson took a broader view. His model is called the psychosocial theory, and it’s an alternative to Freud.
Key difference?
Freud: development is driven by inner biological urges.
Erikson: development is also driven by social and cultural factors, especially how we interact with others.
So, while Freud says your inner drives shape you, Erikson says your life experiences with others also play a huge role.
Whats the role of the ego in Erikson’s psychosocial Theory?
🧠 2. Role of the Ego & Developmental Journey
“Emphasizes the influence of society and culture, as well as the importance of the development of the ego throughout the entire life cycle.”
Let’s break this down:
Ego is your inner manager—it balances your needs and the world’s expectations.
In Erikson’s view, the ego grows through life stages as you face different challenges or conflicts.
This journey doesn’t just happen in childhood—it continues your entire life.
How is Erikson’s psychosocial Theory a Structure of Development and how is the conflict different from Freud?
Erikson’s theory is built around 8 psychosocial stages, from birth to old age. Each stage has:
A conflict (a challenge to resolve).
A positive characteristic that emerges if resolved well.
A key social agent—the person or group that has the biggest influence at that stage.
The process is:
Linear and uni-directional — You go forward, not backward. You can’t skip stages like levels in a video game. You must beat one before moving on.
Conflict: What Does It Mean?
In Freud, the conflict is between pleasure and pain.
In Erikson, it’s between:
biological/psychological needs vs. experiences with others.
Example:
You want to play freely (need for fun) but your parents disapprove (social expectations). This tension is what Erikson calls conflict.
Explain first 4 phases of eriksons psychosocial theory
🌱 STAGE 1: Trust vs Mistrust (Birth–12 months)
Conflict between: a) need for biological needs (e.g. food, warmth) and b) trusting that others will provide for our needs.
They must learn to trust others to take care of their basic needs. If caregivers show rejection or incongruence, the baby may perceive the world as dangerous.
Positive: Hope: the world is generally a good place and obstacles can be overcome
🧑🤝🧑 Key agent: Principal caregiver.
🚼 STAGE 2: Autonomy vs Shame (1–3 years)
Toddler tries to be independent (walk, eat, play).
Conflict: “Can I be independent without being punished?”
Positive:
Succes: Will: ability to make good choices.
Failure → Shame and doubt in self.
👪 Key agent: Parents.
🧒 STAGE 3: Initiative vs Guilt (3–6 years)
Child wants to try new things—“I’ll help!” or “I’ll do it myself!”
Conflict: Can I take initiative without feeling guilty?
Positive:
Success → Purpose.
Failure → Guilt for trying too much.
👨👩👧 Key agent: Family.
🎓 STAGE 4: Industry vs Inferiority (6–12 years)
Child learns skills, gets graded, starts comparing self to others.
Conflict: “Am I capable or worthless?”
Positive:
Success → Competence.
Failure → Feelings of inferiority.
🏫 Key agent: School and peers.
Explain the phases after stage 4 of eriksons psychosocial theory
🧑🦱 STAGE 5: Identity vs Role Confusion (12–18 years)
Teen asks: “Who am I?”
Conflict: “Can I define myself despite changes and choices?”
Positive:
Success → Fidelity (being true to your values).
Failure → Confusion about self and future roles.
👫 Key agent: Peers.
❤️ STAGE 6: Intimacy vs Isolation (18–40 years)
Young adults seek deep, meaningful relationships.
Conflict: “Can I build love and friendship, or will I be alone?”
Positive:
Success → Love.
Failure → Loneliness and isolation.
💞 Key agent: Partner and friends.
👨👩👧 STAGE 7: Generativity vs Stagnation (40–65 years)
Midlife adults focus on giving back—raising kids, helping society.
Conflict: “Am I contributing, or just living for myself?”
Positive:
Success → Care.
Failure → Stagnation (self-absorption).
🏡 Key agent: Family, cultural norms.
👵 STAGE 8: Ego Integrity vs Despair (65+)
Older adult looks back on life.
Conflict: “Was my life meaningful or filled with regret?”
Positive:
Success → Wisdom: peaceful reflection.
Failure → Despair.
🌍 Key agent: Humanity itself (the self in reflection with the world).
What is Donald Winnicott’s Psychodynamic Model?
Winnicott zooms in on the mother-infant relationship, especially the earliest months of life. His work is all about how we become individuals, how we form a self, and how we cope with separation from our caregivers.
What is Primary Maternal Preoccupation in Donald Winnicott’s theory?
Primary maternal preoccupation:
A psychological state in which the mother becomes entirely attuned and devoted to her infant’s care. It allows her to perceive and respond to her baby’s needs instinctively.
The baby is in a state of great vulnerability—like a brand new phone with no case or protection. Everything can hurt it.
The mother is so tuned into her baby’s needs, she puts her own interests aside, which makes her vulnerable too.
The father’s role? He must support the mother, so she can support the baby. It’s like a relay team—dad hands energy to mom, who hands care to the baby.
Wha tis holding in Donald Winnicott’s theory?
Holding (100%)
Winnicott uses the word “holding” not just for physical holding, but emotional and psychological support.
Imagine the baby as an operating system that hasn’t booted up yet. The mother lends her “software” temporarily to help it run.
The baby is born without a psychic structure (i.e. no ego yet), so the mother’s psyche temporarily fills in.
Over time, the mother gradually “lets go”, fostering the baby’s independence
2 developmental Phases (Winnicott)
- Total Dependency Period (0–6 months)
🧷 Fusion phase:
The baby and mother are fused together in the baby’s experience. There’s an early, primitive ego that’s barely separate from the Id (which is all about drives like hunger and comfort).
No boundaries yet—baby doesn’t know “I” and “not-I.”
🔗 Integration phase:
The baby starts differentiating itself slowly—like pixels forming into a clear image.
Mother’s consistency allows ego development and holding enables integration.
2. Relative Dependency Period (6–24 months)
🧍 Personalization phase (6–15 months):
The baby begins to build a body schema: understanding where their body starts and ends (e.g. “my hand is part of me, this spoon isn’t”).
Begins psychosomatic coordination: aligning mind and body (e.g. learning to crawl or grasp).
🪞 Object relationship or realization phase (15–24 months):
The baby begins to see the mother as a separate person.
This is a big leap—the child starts engaging with the outside world through creative play and interaction with objects.
What is Winnicott’s idea of Transitional Objects?
🧸 Transitional Objects
This is one of Winnicott’s most famous ideas.
A transitional object (like a blanket or teddy bear) is the child’s way of bridging the gap between “me” and “not-me.”
Think of it as a psychological security blanket:
It soothes separation anxiety when the mother isn’t around.
It allows the child to internalize comfort without the physical presence of the caregiver.
These transitional objects stay with us for life:
As adults, things like music, religion, or art can serve the same function—linking us to comfort, meaning, and connection.
What is the Critique of the Psychodynamic Perspective?
🧪 Lack of empirical validation: Many psychodynamic ideas are difficult to test or measure scientifically.
🧭 Rigid stage progression: Critics say development isn’t always linear or universal—real life is messier than a strict set of stages.
❓ Hard to falsify: A theory is strong when it makes predictions that can be tested—and possibly proven wrong. Psychodynamic theories often lack this testability.
What is the The Behavioural Perspective?
📌 Main Principle:
Development is not driven from the inside-out (like inner urges or unconscious drives), but from the outside-in. Meaning:
Our environment teaches us how to behave by rewarding or punishing what we do.
🔑 Core Concepts:
External motivations are key → These are things outside the individual (like praise, food, punishments).
Behaviour changes happen because of experience (learning), not just internal development.
Development is seen as a continuous process — no big leaps or stages, just gradual change over time.
Emphasis on quantitative change → More or less of a behavior, not completely different kinds of thinking (contrast this with Piaget or Freud).
BAckground: John Locke
Classical conditioning short
Ivan Pavlov’s Experiment (Late 1800s)
He discovered something fascinating by accident:
He rang a bell before feeding dogs.
Eventually, just hearing the bell made the dogs salivate, even if no food appeared.
Over time, the brain links two events together!!
🧪 Classical Conditioning in Humans – Enter John Watson
Watson took Pavlov’s discovery and applied it to humans.
👶 The Little Albert Experiment (1920):
Watson conditioned a baby named Albert to fear a white rat, by pairing it with a loud, scary noise.
Result: Albert not only feared the rat, but also anything similar (a white bunny, a fur coat).
🔑 Key Ideas from Watson:
He believed complex behavior is just a bunch of conditioned reflexes.
Emotions like fear, anger, love are basic and unlearned.
All other emotions are just combinations or learned associations.
Why is Classical Conditioning Important?
It shows us that:
We learn emotional reactions (like fear, comfort, or love) from the associations we form in our environment — even as infants.
That’s HUGE for development! Imagine a child crying for attention and being soothed by a parent. Over time, that parent becomes a conditioned source of comfort.
This is how we build emotional bonds — through simple patterns of learning.
It paved the way for Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning — coming next!
Thorndike & the Law of Effect (contingency) in Instrumental Conditioning
Thorndike – Law of Effect: An organism will tend to repeat a response that has been reinforced (positive contingency) and eliminate a response that has been punished (negative contingency).
Analogy: Imagine you’re a cat stuck in a box (like Thorndike’s experiment). If you accidentally hit a lever and the door opens, you’ll remember to do it again. If nothing good happens, you stop trying that behavior.
Skinner’s Contribution in Instrumental Conditioning
Instrumental conditioning describes development of behaviour as the result of the effects of rewards and punishment (Skinner, 1957)
Skinner took Thorndike’s idea and created the Skinner Box — a controlled environment where animals like pigeons learned behaviors by pressing levers and receiving food.
🧪 This made it easier to observe cause-and-effect learning.
Reinforcement vs Punishment in Instrumental Conditioning
🔵 Rewards increase the likelihood of a behaviour occurring again in the future (reinforcement)
Positive reinforcement = add a pleasant outcome
Negative reinforcement = remove an unpleasant outcome
🔴 Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behaviour occurring again in the future (punishment)
Positive punishment = add an unpleasant outcome
Negative punishment = remove a pleasant outcome
🧠 Imagine training a dog:
Give a treat for sitting = positive reinforcement
Take away leash tension when they heel = negative reinforcement
Yell “NO” when they jump = positive punishment
Stop playing when they nip = negative punishment
Explain stimulus
Stimulus = anything external that influences behavior. Can be pleasant/unpleasant, internal/external.
Accidental reinforcment in Instrumental Conditioning
Instrumental conditioning is effective.
Sometimes we can have undesirable consequences if it is not applied appropriately.
📣 Example: Reducing a child’s calls for attention
Child calls out, caregiver ignores (tries to extinguish).
But eventually gives in.
Now the child learns: “If I call louder and longer, I get attention.”
The child has now learned that they must call out louder and for longer to receive attention (not the desired effect).
This is accidental reinforcement — the behavior you wanted to stop just got rewarded.
What is Extinction in Instrumental Conditioning
Its withholding a reward after an instrumental response.
📍 To extinguish behavior, you must consistently avoid rewarding it — no attention, no treats, nothing.
🛒 Example:
Child throws tantrum in the store.
You do not give them the candy.
Eventually, the behavior fades if no reward follows.
What is Social Learning Theory?
Imagine the brain like a sponge—not just soaking up experiences that happen to you, but also watching what happens to others, and learning from that. Social Learning Theory says:
“We learn not just by doing, but by watching what happens when others do something.”
🧪 Bandura’s Experiments (1963, 1965)
🍭 Main Concepts Introduced:
Modelling: Learning by observing and copying behavior.
Vicarious reinforcement: Learning from others being rewarded.
Vicarious punishment: Learning from others being punished.
👦👧 The Setup:
Imagine a preschool classroom. You show a group of 4-5 year-old kids a video or live demonstration of an adult hitting a large inflatable doll (a Bobo doll).
Condition 1: Adult hits the doll and then gets praised (🍬 = reward)
Condition 2: Adult hits the doll and then gets scolded (🗯️ = punishment)
Condition 3: No consequence
What was the findings of 🧪 Bandura’s Experiments (1963, 1965)
Kids who saw the adult praised were more likely to also hit the doll = vicarious reinforcement
Kids who saw the adult punished were less likely to copy = vicarious punishment
Kids who saw no consequence were somewhere in the middle
🧠 Conclusion: Kids don’t need to be rewarded or punished themselves—they learn from what they observe happening to others. That’s powerful.
Vicarious Reinforcement & Vicarious Punishment 👀 in social learning theory
These terms are crucial:
Vicarious reinforcement: Seeing someone else get a reward for an action increases the chance you’ll do it.
Vicarious punishment: Seeing someone else get punished makes you less likely to copy.
🧠 Analogy: Imagine watching your sibling sneak cookies from the jar.
If they get ice cream afterward (reward), you might try it too.
If they get a time-out (punishment), you’ll probably think twice.
What is the The Four Conditions for Learning (Bandura, 1969) in social learning theory?
For observational learning to translate into behavior, the child must:
Pay attention: The behavior must stand out or be interesting.
Remember it: It has to be stored in memory.
Be able to reproduce it: You must physically or mentally be able to do it.
Be motivated: You must want to do it—usually if a reward is expected.
Self-Efficacy 💡in socila learning theory
When a child does not do the same action like immitating behaviuour they have Self-efficacy, which is the belief that you have control over your behavior and can choose whether or not to imitate.
It’s like a filter: the child watches the behavior, thinks about whether it fits their understanding of “what’s right,” and decides.
🧠 Analogy: Imagine a child sees their sibling drawing on the wall. The child chooses not to copy. That shows self-efficacy—they’re applying rules, social norms, and their own self-control.
This is NOT just blind copying—it’s thoughtful, filtered learning.
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
These perspectives combine biological and physiological effects of development with social and environmental factors.
Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory:
Considered both cognitive and integrative.
Explains how biological factors (like genetics) and social experiences (e.g., interactions with others) influence development.
Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory is also part of this approach (not expanded in the visible slides, but noted).
🧬 Biology + 👥 Social Input = Cognitive Development
Biology is the base or “engine” of development.
Social input is the key that unlocks complex thinking beyond basic instincts.
💡 “It explains how cognitive abilities develop in a sociocultural context.
Vygotsky vs. Piaget
Vygotsky disagreed with Piaget’s view that all children develop cognition the same way.
Instead, he argued that:
Children develop mental abilities based on their cultural and social environments.
🧠 Children are born with:
Basic mental functions:
Sensory processing, perception, attention, and memory
➡️ These are transformed by cultural influences into higher mental functions.
🤝 Development as a Social Process in sociocultural theory
Vygotsky agreed with Piaget that children are curious learners.
But he emphasized the interactive nature of development:
“Development as a social process”
Key Concept:
Learning depends on the involvement of others:
Teachers, parents, peers, etc.
“It is not achieved through solo exploration but is associated with a ‘More Knowledgeable Other’ (MKO)”
→ This is anyone with better understanding or higher skill than the learner.
📏 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
This is one of Vygotsky’s most powerful ideas.
🎯 ZPD = The “Goldilocks Zone” of learning:
“Too hard to do alone, but can be done with guidance.”
Learning happens within the ZPD, with help from someone more capable.
Over time, the child:
“Internalises what they learn with others in the ZPD and eventually uses these new skills on their own.”
🏗️ Scaffolding
Just like scaffolding on a building helps during construction, educational scaffolding provides temporary support while a child learns.
“Support provided by ‘experts’ to increase understanding of the problem.”
The amount of scaffolding depends on the learner’s need:
Less advanced → more help
More advanced → less help
🗣️ Language and Development sociocultural theory
Language plays a central role in Vygotsky’s theory.
Two key roles:
Communication tool for scaffolding.
Cognitive tool that helps structure thought.
🧒 Piaget’s View: Egocentric Speech
In the preoperational stage (2–7 yrs), children often “talk to themselves”.
Example: Two kids side by side talking aloud without interacting.
Egocentric speech = Self-talk that describes actions, like a commentator.
🔸 Piaget said it had no cognitive purpose.
Vygotsky’s View: Private Speech
He argued this “self-directed speech” is critical for development. Egocentric Speech is Child’s self-talk with no developmental purpose (piaget)
It’s not just noise — it’s a thinking tool.
“It helps the subject to plan strategies and regulate their behaviour in order to accomplish a goal.”
This is:
Private speech → eventually becomes → Inner speech (inner monologue).
🧩 Example: “This piece goes here, then that piece goes there.”
What is an example of scaffolding in learning?
A teacher helps a child solve a math problem step by step. Over time, the child learns to do it independently.
Critique of Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
*
The acknowledgment of the role of social and cultural factors in cognitive development explains how individuals may develop cognitive abilities at different rates (unlike Piaget’s theory).
*
Vygotsky’s theory allows less concrete, testable hypotheses compared to Piaget’s theory, making it difficult to test the theoretical concepts.
What is Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model?
Describes social influence as a series of concentric circles with the person at the center. It explains how different environments influence development:
Microsystem → Family, school (direct influences).
Mesosystem → Interaction between environments (e.g., parents & teachers).
Exosystem → Indirect influences (e.g., parent’s workplace).
Macrosystem → Cultural values, economic conditions.
What is Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory?
A theory that explains human development as a result of interactions between individuals and their environment.
Development is influenced by multiple levels of environmental systems.
Example: A child’s academic success is shaped by family support, school quality, and cultural expectations.
What is the Key Idea: The Environment is Ever-Changing
The environment is not a fixed force; it evolves over time.
People’s experiences and growth are influenced by shifting external factors.
Example: A child who grows up with access to technology will develop different skills than one who grows up without it.
What is the Chronosystem? (Time’s Impact on Development)
The Chronosystem refers to how time affects personal growth and life experiences.
Life changes can happen due to external forces (e.g., an economic crisis, new laws) or internal changes (e.g., a change in mindset, maturity).
Example:
A person growing up during a war will develop differently than someone raised in a peaceful society.
A child may be shy at 5 years old but, over time, become confident due to supportive teachers and friends.
What are the different systems in the Bioecological Theory
Microsystem: The Inner Circle (Closest Ring)
This is the child’s immediate world—the daily face-to-face interactions the child has. Think: 🏡 home, 🧑🏫 school, 👶 daycare, 👨👩👧 parents, 🧑🤝🧑 peers.
If Mom is stressed and yells a lot, that affects the child.
If the child throws tantrums, that affects how Mom behaves too.
💡 The key word: Bidirectional influence—the child and the parents are both active in these daily interactions.
🔵 Mesosystem: The Connections Between Microsystems
This is the interaction between the child’s different microsystems. For example:
If a parent is actively involved in school (e.g., parent-teacher meetings), that affects how the child does in class.
If a teacher knows about difficulties at home, they may adjust how they interact with the child.
🟠 Exosystem: The Outside Circle (Indirect Influences)
These are the systems that the child doesn’t directly participate in, but which still affect them.
Examples:
A parent’s stressful job impacts how patient they are with the child.
Local health services determine how quickly a child gets help.
📌 Analogy: Think of the exosystem like the weather—the child doesn’t control it, but it still impacts their day (rain cancels recess!).
🔴 Macrosystem: The Cultural Blueprint
This is the broadest circle—the culture, values, belief systems, laws, and customs the child grows up in.
⏳ Chronosystem: Time as a Dimension
This is the temporal layer—how all of these systems change over time, both in the child’s life and in society.
Example 1: Parents divorcing when a child is 3 vs. 13 will have different effects.
Example 2: A child growing up during COVID-19 vs. in a pre-pandemic world.
The environment is not a fixed force; it evolves over time.
People’s experiences and growth are influenced by shifting external factors.
Example: A child who grows up with access to technology will develop different skills than one who grows up without it.
What does it mean that the enviroment is ever-changing
The environment is not a fixed force; it evolves over time.
People’s experiences and growth are influenced by shifting external factors.
Example: A child who grows up with access to technology will develop different skills than one who grows up without it.
Does Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory Only Apply to Children?
No! This theory applies to all stages of life, from infancy to old age.
Social systems, healthcare, and policies shape our well-being at every stage.
Example:
A country with good elderly care helps older adults live independently.
A child raised in a supportive school system may develop confidence and better career prospects.
What is the Cognitive Perspective of Development? Piaget
It is a theory that explains how thinking, memory, and problem-solving develop over time. It focuses on intellectual growth rather than just behavior.
💡 Example:
A toddler solving a puzzle (basic problem-solving).
A child learning to speak and remember words (language development).
A teenager solving algebra problems (abstract thinking).
Who was Jean Piaget?
Piaget (1896–1980) was a Swiss psychologist who developed one of the most influential theories on child development.
💡 Key Idea: Intelligence is like a GPS system, helping us navigate and adapt to new experiences.
What is Object Permanence?
The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight.
💡 Example:
A baby under 6 months believes a hidden toy is gone.
A baby around 8–12 months realizes the toy is still there and tries to uncover it.
🧠 Analogy: Peekaboo—before object permanence, babies think you actually disappear when you cover your face.
What is Cognitive Equilibrium?
A state where a child’s understanding of the world matches their experiences.
💡 Example:
A child sees a zebra for the first time and calls it a “striped horse.”
They later adjust their knowledge to recognize it as a separate animal.
What is Piaget’s Interactionist View on Learning?
What is Piaget’s Interactionist View on Learning?
Answer:
Learning happens when there is a mismatch between what we know and what we experience.
💡 Example:
A child calls a lion a “big cat” but later learns it is a wild animal.
What is a Schema?
A mental framework that helps us organize and interpret information.
💡 Example:
A child sees a cat and thinks it’s a dog because both have four legs.
Later, they create a new schema for “cats.”
What are Organization & Adaptation in Piaget’s Theory?
🧩 Organization: Combining simple actions into complex behaviors.
🛠 Adaptation: Adjusting thinking to fit new experiences.
💡 Example:
Organization: A baby first learns to grasp objects, then later coordinates hand-eye movements.
Adaptation: A child learns to eat with a spoon, adjusting their grip over time.
What is Assimilation?
Using existing knowledge to interpret new information.
💡 Example:
A child sees a cow and calls it a “dog” because they only know that four-legged animals are dogs.
What is Accommodation?
Changing mental structures when new experiences don’t fit.
💡 Example:
The child realizes that cows and dogs are different and creates a new category for cows.
How do we achieve Cognitive Development?
Through assimilation and accommodation, children refine their knowledge over time.
💡 Example:
A child learning language first mimics words (assimilation) and later forms sentences (accommodation).
What is Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory?
A theory that explains how children’s thinking evolves in stages as they grow. EACH STAGE NEEDS TO BE MET BEFORE THEY CAN MOVE ON TO NEXT!
💡 Key idea: Children actively construct knowledge rather than just absorbing information.
Does the cognitive development theory always follow a linear order?
Children may progress from each stage at different ages due to cultural or environmental factors.
What are the four stages of Piaget’s Cognitive Development?
1️⃣ Sensorimotor (0-2 years) – Learning through senses and movement.
2️⃣ Preoperational (2-7 years) – Developing imagination, symbolic thinking, and egocentrism.
3️⃣ Concrete Operational (7-11 years) – Logical thinking about real objects, conservation.
4️⃣ Formal Operational (11+ years) – Abstract and hypothetical thinking.
EACH HAVE SUBSTAGES!
What is the key development in the Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)?
Object permanence – The understanding that objects still exist even when they’re out of sight. Produces schemas that allow them to interact with their environment
objects exists, and events occur in the world independently of one’s own actions.
👶 Example: A baby before developing object permanence thinks a hidden toy is gone. After developing object permanence, they will look for it.
What happens in the Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)?
Symbolic thinking – Using words and images to represent objects. symbols: the ability to make one thing (e.g., a word) represent something else.
Egocentrism – Struggles to see things from others’ perspectives.
Pretend play/symbolic play – Imagining roles like “doctor” or “teacher.” Children often engage in symbolic play: play that represents real life.
💡 Example: A child calls a banana a “phone” while playing. 🍌📞
Recall: Past experiences or absent objects/people).
Piaget and Inhelder’s (1956) Three Mountains Study
They gave 4- to 5-year-olds a 3D model of three mountains: the subject stood on one side and the experimenters placed a doll on the other side. When the subject was asked what the doll would see from their side, the subject described their own view of the mountains. (Egocentrism)
What develops in the Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)?
Logical thinking about concrete objects.
Conservation – Understanding that quantity stays the same even if shape changes.
💡 Example: They now understand that a tall, thin glass and a short, wide glass can hold the same amount of water. 🥤
From ego-centered preoperational thought to using sophisticated cognitive operations.
Classification – organising things into categories, and making assumptions about objects due to their membership to a category.
Children are able to begin to use complex mathematical skills.
What is the Formal Operational Stage (11+ years to adulthood)?
A shift occurs from being able to only consider concrete (or real, physically present) concepts to being able to consider abstract concepts.
The concrete-operator (in the previous stage) can apply cognitive operations to real or imaginable concrete scenarios.
develops the ability to think about abstract and hypothetical ideas that have no basis in reality.
💡 Example: “What if we lived on Mars?” becomes a valid thought experiment. 🚀
Hypothetical and deductive reasoning
What is the hypothetical and deductive reasoning in Formal Operational Stage (11+ years to adulthood)?
In this stage, individuals develop the ability to think in abstract, hypothetical, and deductive ways. This marks the highest level of cognitive development in Piaget’s theory.
Hypothetical and Deductive Reasoning
Individuals can think logically about abstract concepts, not just concrete experiences.
Deductive reasoning: Using a general principle to determine a specific outcome.
Example:
If A = B, and B = C, then A = C.
If all mammals have hair, and dogs are mammals, then dogs must have hair.
Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning
This involves applying logical principles to hypothetical problems rather than just real-life experiences.
Example:
Thinking about what would happen if gravity worked differently rather than only relying on firsthand experiences.
What is Cognitive Equilibrium?
A mental state where a child’s understanding of the world matches their experiences.
📌 If there is an imbalance, they must adjust their thinking to regain balance.
💡 Analogy: Your brain is like a puzzle—new experiences sometimes force you to rearrange pieces.
What is Systematic Problem Solving (Piaget’s Pendulum Problem) in the formal Operational Stage (11+ years to adulthood)?
Pendulum Problem:
Piaget presented young people with pendulums of different string lengths and weights and asked them:
“What affects the rate of swing?”
Concrete Operational Stage (ages 7-11):
Children approached the task randomly, changing multiple variables at once.
Formal Operational Stage (ages 11+):
Children tested one variable at a time while keeping all other factors constant, leading to a systematic approach.
Significance:
Shows that formal-operational thinkers apply the scientific method to problem-solving.
Concrete operational thinkers, in contrast, lack systematic testing ability.
Implications for Education – Piaget’s View
Active Learning > Passive Learning
Students should engage in activities rather than just listening to teachers.
Example: Hands-on experiments rather than memorizing scientific facts.
Discovery Learning
Students learn more effectively by discovering new information rather than being told directly.
Example: Instead of a teacher telling students how gravity works, students should conduct experiments to observe and draw conclusions themselves.
Ethological Models
Influenced by Charles Darwin.
Key Researchers: Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen.
Innate behaviors:
These are instinctive, universal, and not influenced by learning or the environment.
Example: A baby’s reflex to suckle or a bird’s instinct to migrate.
Lorenz and Imprinting:
Imprinting: A process where newborns form a strong attachment to the first object they see.
Example: Ducklings following their mother or even a human if exposed at birth.
Imprinting is irreversible and occurs before emotional attachment.
What are the Critical Periods and Sensitive Periods in the Ethological Models?
Some behaviors need to happen at specific timeframes for proper development.
Critical Period:
A fixed time when a behavior must occur for development to be normal.
Example: Language acquisition (Lenneberg’s theory) suggests that if a child does not learn language before puberty, they may never fully develop it.
Case study: Genie – a child who was isolated and missed this critical period, leading to severe language deficits.
Sensitive Period:
A more flexible stage where learning is easier but not impossible afterward.
Example: Learning a second language is easier for children but still possible in adulthood.
