personality Flashcards
define personality trait
= a personality characteristic that endures/lasts over time and across different situations
- trait theories of personality focus on measuring, identifying and describing individual’s personality differences in terms of traits. E.g. how two people’s personality differ in shyness
- trait theories are used to predict behaviour based on the individual’s personality traits. Many personality tests are based on traits. E.g. when applying for a job.
what are the key assumptions of trait theories
- personality traits are STABLE and therefore PREDICTABLE OVER TIME, and personality traits are relatively STABLE across DIFFERENT SITUATIONS.
e. g. a confident person will be confident throughout their lifetime and across many different unique situations. - an individual’s personality is made up of NUMEROUS TRAITS, and that some people have ‘MORE’ or ‘LESS’ of each trait than others.
e. g. one person may be more confident than another - some traits are more CLOSELY INTERRELATED than other traits, tend to occur more together
e. g. an individual who is confident will likely also be extraverted, whereas a shy individual will more likely be introverted
What is a scale/’dimension/continuum for traits
A way of describing each personality trait on a scale which shows the trait in terms of its two ‘opposites’ or ‘extremities’
e. g
(apprehensive) ——– (cautious) ——– (self-assured)
What are the strengths of trait theories
- provided the foundation for valid and reliable personality assessment devices which are used for a variety of purposes (diagnostic tests for neuropsychological disorders, vocational selection)
What are the limitations of trait theories?
- can lead people to use oversimplified classifications and descriptions of people’s personality
- human personality is too complex to be described by simple labels; underestimate individual’s uniqueness
- underestimate the ways in which specific situations and socio-cultural factors can influence human behaviour
Describe Costa and McCrae’s Five Factor Model
Uses factor analysis to identify five groups of traits that statistically ‘go together’
- Openness to experience
e. g. imagination, curious, artistic, insightful and unconventional, traits associated with having wide interests - Conscientiousness
e. g. organised, thorough, efficient, competent, reliable, self-disciplined, deliberate - Extraversion
e. g. outgoing, sociable, talkative, energetic, adventurous, assertive - Agreeableness
e. g. cooperative, compliance, sympathetic, kind, forgiving, modest - Neuroticism / emotional stability
e. g. tense, anxious, moody, impulsive, self-conscious, vulnerable
- Known as the ‘Big 5’
- traits were identified using Allport’s language based, lexical approach and Cattel’s statistical approach involving factor analysis
- developed to show the structure of personality and to describe it, not to explain it
- widely recognised as the most accurate identification and description of human personality traits in contemporary psychology
Define social-cognitive theory
The theory that personality by itself doesn’t determine behaviour; that even if it is relatively stable, it only influenced behaviour.
- Behaviour occurs in a context such as home, school or work, and this context cannot be ignored.
What was Bandura’s contribution to social-cognitive theory
Introduced the idea of ‘reciprocal determinism’
= Explained human behaviour as being the result of the interaction between behaviours, cognitive factors and environmental factors.
- emphasised that behaviour is influenced by what we see, think and believe, and vice versa.
- each factors (cognitive, behavioural and environmental) influence each other.
(cognitive = self-generated goals, standards that influence our thoughts and feelings, belief in yourself and ability) (behavioural = looking out for consequences of actions)
Define self-efficacy
The degree to which you are sure of your own ability and capability to manage and to be effective in meeting demands of particular situations.
High S.E. = you believe you are capable of accomplishing a task
(shy away from difficult tasks, low aspirations, weak commitment)
Low S.E. = believe you are less capable of accomplishing a task
(set challenging goals, put in a lot of effort, stay committed)
What is S.E. affected by?
- Performance accomplishments = how successful you have been with a task in the past
- failed with a similar task in the past = low S.E.
- success with a similar task in the past = high S.E. - Vicarious experiences = when you observe other people performing a task (usually your peers)
- peers failing = low S.E.
- peers succeeding = high S.E. - Verbal persuasion = impact of other people’s worlds
- negative talk - low S.E.
- encouragement - high S.E. - Psychological states = the emotional arousal that a learner experiences and how they identify that arousal
- anxiety, butterflies = tense, agitated state = low S.E.
- excitement = high S.E.
Describe S.E. in terms of classroom learning
- teachers can affect a child’s S.E. (e.g. through verbal persuasion)
- parents can provide an environment which encourages learning (e.g. tutoring, resources)
- peers are similar and so can enhance the likelihood of influence by modelling (e.g. unmotivated peers, striving for success isn’t popular vs motivated peers who want to succeed)
Describe the assumptions of Humanistic Trait Theories
- emphasise the uniqueness of each individual and the positive qualities and potential of all human beings to fulfil their lives
- all people are born good and all strive to reach their full potential throughout their lives
(3. ) a healthy personality is the result of a person achieving their full, however ‘small’ or ‘great; this may be
(4. ) an individual’s personality is viewed as the total of all experiences they have had up to a specific point in time. To understand personality fully, you must try to understand the dilemmas and choices they have made from their perspective.
Describes Maslow’s contribution to Humanistic Trait Theories
= We have a hierarchy of needs. We must meet our lower level needs first to meet our higher level needs. Gratification of each need is required before moving up to the higher levels.
- Self Fulfilment Needs
- Self-actualisation needs: the drive towards growth, self-expression, creativity, and the achievement of one’s highest unique potential.
Characteristics = self-accepting, highly self-aware, private, independent, creative and able to enjoy life - Psychological Needs
- Esteem needs: for self-esteem, achievement and independence, respect from others, achieved through accomplishment and recognition of success
- Belongingness and love needs: to feel love be loved, to belong and be accepted, achieved through the establishment of friendships and intimate relationships - Basic Needs
- Safety needs: feel safe and secure
- Physiological needs: food, water, warmth, sleep
Describe the assumptions of Roger’s Person-Centred Theory
- likened each person to the seed of an enormous tree to describe the development of personality. Believed that each person has an enormous potential inside themselves to grow and develop for the rest of their life, unless something in the environment prevents that from happening.
- whether or not an individual achieves their full-potential (self-actualisation) depends on 3 factors: the way others treat them (accepted or rejected by them), how they view themselves (their SELF-CONCEPT), how effectively they can deal with negative influences in their life that cause them anxiety or conflict.
Self-concept = all the perceptions and beliefs an individual has about themselves including their nature, unique qualities and their typical behaviour.
What are the important factors that Rogers believe we need to self-actualise
- Rogers believed that childhood is a CRITICAL TIME for the development of a personality, and that the social relationships a child experiences have lasting effects on their development of self concept
- The role of other people who are important to us can assist in our ability to self-actualise in 3 ways: (1) by being genuine (by being honest and open with their feelings towards us), (2) by being accepting (by valuing us for what we are, regardless of our shortcomings, so that we experience unconditional positive regard), (3) by being empathetic (able to put themselves in our position to fully understand, from our pov, how we feel)
