cognition section - study :)

Question 1

Define memory

Answer 1

an active information-processing system that stores, organises and recovers information acquired through learning - crucial for survival

• sometimes called ‘mental representation’

Question 2

Define encoding, storage and retrieval

Answer 2

1. Encoding: memory begins when our senses take in different external and internal environments. This raw data (light rays, sound waves) has to be converted into a code that our brain can work with later.
   - Encoding certain types of information takes place automatically without any mental effort
   - Encoding different types of information tends to require more effort (attend the information, label it and associate it with other material / rehearse it until its familiar)
2. Storage: this encoded information is then stored (retained) in the memory system for a period of time.
3. Retrieval: involves locating and recovering information stored in memory and bringing it into consciousness when needed to complete the cognitive task.

• Although these processes serve different purposes, they interact
o How information is encoding determines what information is stored and how that information will be retrieved

Question 3

What is Atkinson-Shiffrin’s Multi-Store Model of Memory

Answer 3

Visualises memory as a system consisting of multiple memory stores, through which a stream of data flows for processing

This model emphasises the storage structures and suggests that if information is to be stored for a long time, it must pass through three memory stores: sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.

Question 4

Define sensory memory

Answer 4

new sensory information (in the form of light, sound, taste etc.)

• an automatic process (we have no conscious control over)
• has 2 main sensory registers (holds info as an exact copy of its original form) - iconic and echoic memory

Question 5

Describe sensory memory’s capacity and duration

Answer 5

capacity - unlimited

duration - a few seconds (if ignored, deemed unimportant, forget about it), just long enough to encode it into usable form and transfer it to STM for further processing

Question 6

Define iconic memory

Answer 6

One of the main sensory registers of sensory memory (images)
function - registers shape, size, colour and form
duration - stores info as an icon for 1/2 second
capacity - unlimited

(icon = a fleeting image with picture-like qualities)

Question 7

Define echoic memory

Answer 7

One of the main sensory registers (sounds)
function - registers auditory information
duration - temporary, sound remains as an echo for 3 - 4 seconds
capacity - unlimited

(echo - a brief continuation of activity in the auditory system after the stimulus has ended)

Question 8

Define short term memory

Answer 8

Holds all the thoughts, information and experiences that we are aware of at any given time (a limited amount for a brief time - unless rehearsed)

Receives info from 2 sources:

• sensory memory
• long term memory

Question 9

Describe STM’s capacity

Answer 9

George Miller - the average adult’s memory is limited to the number 7 (pieces of information), give or take 2

• When STM is full, new info can be added, as long as other bits of info ‘drop out’
• STM is sensitive to interruption

Question 10

How can STM’s capacity be prolonged

Answer 10

1 - chunking
= grouping separate items into groups (chunks) so that they form a larger, single item

2- rehearsal

Question 11

Describe STM’s duration

Answer 11

18 - 20 seconds (before info drops out)

• can be prolonged through rehearsal

Question 12

Define LTM

Answer 12

• according the Atkinson-Shiffrin, once the info in STM has been processed, it is transferred to LTM

function:

• stores all of the memories, experiences, identity etc.
• when required later, we retrieve info by locating it in LTM and return it to conscious awareness
• info in LTM is organised and stored in a hierarchal network of concepts (nodes) connected by meaningful links

Question 12

Define LTM

Answer 12

• according the Atkinson-Shiffrin, once the info in STM has been processed, it is transferred to LTM

function:

• stores all of the memories, experiences, identity etc.
• when required later, we retrieve info by locating it in LTM and return it to conscious awareness
• info in LTM is organised and stored in a hierarchal network of concepts (nodes) connected by meaningful links

Question 13

Describe LTM’s capacity and duration

Answer 13

capacity - unlimited

duration - relatively permanent (can be difficult to retrieve)

Question 14

Outline the theories on why we can’t retrieve every LTM

Answer 14

1 - retrieval failure theory
= cannot access the correct retrieval clues needed to activate a specific memory.

2 - decay theory
= the chemical memory trace of the information created when the memory was formed fades away over time due to lack of use (haven’t needed to attend to the information)

3 - interference theory
= specific information is blocked from entering our consciousness by other memories

4 - motivated forgetting
= we don’t want to remember painful or traumatic memories, so we consciously or unconsciously forget their retrieval

Question 15

What are the different types of memories in LTM

Answer 15

• LTM is a separate memory store and can hold different types of memories

1 . implicit memory (or ‘procedural’)
= non-conscious memory of skills and actions
- initially requires effort to learn, later becomes automatic
- achieved through repetition and practice
e.g. tying shoe laces

2. explicit (or ‘declarative’ memory)
   = conscious memory of facts and personally significant events
   - more complex than implicit
   - consciously recalled and declared
   - can be assessed by recall and recognition, as well as the context in which the event occurred

explicit memory is further divided

Question 16

What is explicit memory’s subdivisions

Answer 16

1. semantic memory
   = impersonal facts (objects, names etc.)
   - quite resistant to forgetting
2. episodic memory
   = memory of time and place - an autobiographical memory (wedding etc.)
   - emotionally attached to episodic memories (personally significant)
   - part of memory affected by Alzheimer’s

Question 17

Outline the LTM retrieval methods

Answer 17

Memory retrieval requires revisiting the nerve pathways the brain created when forming the memory.

1. Recall
   = supplying/reproducing facts/info that is stored in LTM without cues for assistance a part from the question being asked
   e.g. “what is your name”
2. Recognition
   = identifying the correct answer from a list of possible alternatives called distracters.
   - superior to recall, provides retrieval cues that act as prompts for info we otherwise wouldn’t recall
   e.g. multiple choice test
3. Re-learning
   = learning something that has previously been learnt
   - the most successful measure of retrieving info

Question 18

List the factors that help us retrieve LTM

Answer 18

1. retrieval cues (context-dependent, state dependent)
2. rehearsal (maintenance rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal)
3. serial position effect
4. chunking

Question 19

Describe retrieval cues as a retrieval factor

Answer 19

= the most effective ways of improving retrieval from LTM, creates the conditions that were present when the memory was formed

Two categories:

1. context dependent cues
   = the physical surroundings (context) present when learning something and forming a memory, provides useful eternal cues that assist retrieval later.
   - because you recall the info in the same setting in which the memory was formed.
   - we lose enternal cues when we try retrieval in a different setting, and struggle to retrieve

(GODDEN AND BADDELEY - different contexts (18-20%), same context (30-40%)

2. state dependent cues
   = the physical and psychological state that exists during learning can be a strong cue for memory retrieval later.
   e.g. feeling hot may make you remember another time you felt hot

Question 20

Describe rehearsal as a retrieval factor

Answer 20

= consciously manipulating info to improve the duration of STM (in order to exceed 18-20 second duration, greater chance of transferring to LTM)

Two categories:

1. maintenance rehearsal
   = involves repeating info for a number of times so it can be held in STM longer
   A - allows for longer than 18-20 sec duration
   L - easily interrupted by other info, doesn’t improve understanding
2. elaborative rehearsal
   = involves adding more detail to a memory during encoding to create meaningful links
   A - adds more understanding, adds more detail (improves retrieval chances)
   L - takes longer, more conscious effort

Question 21

Describe serial position effect as a retrieval factor

Answer 21

= a pattern of recall for list items, where recall is better for items at the BEGINNING (primary effect) or END (recency effect) than items in the middle

• the order in which we process info is important
• GLANZER AND CUNITZ - a study that supports this effect

Question 22

What causes serial position effect

Answer 22

• a widely accepted theory is that the difference between STM and LTM is important

1. the last few items are remembered (still fresh in STM)
2. the first few items are remembered (received more attention and rehearsal, therefore transferred to LTM)
3. middle items are forgotten (too late for LTM and too early for STM)

= further supports the notion that LTM and STM are different memories

Question 23

Define chunking

Answer 23

= grouping items into separate chunks/groups, to form a larger, single item that we can effectively increase STM capacity

Question 24

Define the working memory model

Answer 24

A multi-component model of working memory.
- developed by Baddeley and Hitch

Describes the structure and function of working memory in terms of 3 components

(known as ‘working’ memory as it emphasises working, which differs from other STM models, e.g. Atkinson-Shiffrin)

Question 25

What are the working memory’s 3 components

Answer 25

1. the phonological loop - subset/slave system of working memory
2. visuo-spatial sketchpad - subset/slave system of working memory
3. central executive - attention controller

• separate, function independently, but also interact

Question 26

Describe the phonological loop

Answer 26

Also called verbal working memory (specialised for verbal info, which is stored in a sound based or phonological form)

= activated whenever you read, speak or repeat words to yourself to remember them

Duration - 2 seconds (brief period of time)
Capacity - temporarily stores a limited amount of verbal speech-like info

Crucial features:

• sub-vocal maintenance rehearsal (internally repeating words over and over again, similar to a loop)
• internal unspoken speech during rehearsal (interrupted = phonological storage cannot occur)

Question 27

Define word-length effect

Answer 27

as the lengths of the words in a list increases, the number of words that can be remembered decreases

• shorter syllable words are easier to rehearse in the phonological loop compared to longer syllable words, due to the loop’s short duration (2 seconds)

Question 28

Describe the visuo-spatial sketchpad

Answer 28

• also known as visual working memory

= temporarily stores a limited amount of visual and spatial information for a brief amount of time, and acts as a mental workspace for storing and manipulating this info

visual info = anything you can see/visualise
spatial info = visual location of objects in space

Question 29

Define dual-task experiment

Answer 29

= where participants are required to use one sub-system (e.g. visuo-spatial sketchpad), while simultaneously performing another task using another sub-system (e.g. phonological loop)

Question 30

Describe the central executive

Answer 30

• the most important and complex

functions:

• controls attention
• integrates info from the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad (and info received from LTM)
• co-ordinates the flow of info between working memory and LTM

= because it manipulates info, it is known as the working component of working memory

Question 31

List 6 examples of what they central executive does

Answer 31

• directs your attention to activities you are doing
• filters useful and non-useful info
• combines info from the other 2 components
• selects, deletes and re-orders info
• add info from LTM when required to guide mental processes
• directs info back to LTM when no longer required

Question 32

What was the issue with working memory?

Answer 32

Baddeley said it didn’t explain how working memory links with LTM

• added a 4th component known as the episodic buffer

Question 33

Describe the episodic buffer

Answer 33

= a sub-system of working memory which enables the different components to interact with LTM (not fully described)

Assumptions include:

• limited capacity (holds around 4 chunks of info of any form)
• temporary storage system
• controlled by the central executive
• directly linked to LTM, but is separate and has its own storage space

Question 34

Why is it called the ‘episodic buffer’

Answer 34

Episodic =’pulls together’ separate bits of info from working memory and LTM, then combines them into scenes or ‘episodes’

Buffer - provides a temporary working space, like a mental workbench

Question 35

Describe a scenario where you are thinking of a route to drive somewhere using the working memory model

Answer 35

1. use the phonological loop to sub-vocally rehearse the directions, to keep the route directions active in the loop
2. you would use your visuo-spatial sketchpad to visualise the route
3. your central executive would direct the episodic buffer to combine the auditory info and visual-spatial info
4. the episodic buffer would direct LTM info about landmarks etc.
5. your central executive would use this info to plan your journey
6. when needed to make adjustments, your episodic buffer would be used as a mental workbench to make any adjustments to the route

Question 36

Fill in the diagram:

                        ---------
                          < ^ > 
---------      <      ---------       >         --------
                             ^
                         ---------

Answer 36

central executive
VSSP Episodic buffer PL
LTM

Question 37

Define behaviour modification

Answer 37

= The application of classical and operant conditioning techniques to human behaviour and learning.

• Uses reinforcement, and occasionally punishment, to modify or change unwanted behaviours, and strengthen desirable ones.
• Sometimes known as behaviour therapy, as it can be used to treat psychological problems

Question 38

Define cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT)

Answer 38

= a technique used by psychologists that is based on the premise that cognitions (thoughts) influence feelings, and that subsequent behaviours and emotions influence thoughts

• Has a behavioural and cognitive component

Question 39

What is the process of cognitive behavioural therapy

Answer 39

The therapist helps the client identify unhelpful thoughts, feelings and emotions.

^ unhelpful = causing distraction and distress to the client’s everyday life

2. The therapist helps to change these behaviours through behaviour modification, relaxation and other behavioural change techniques

Question 40

Define cognitive therapy

Answer 40

= based on the theory that distressing emotions are the result of maladaptive thinking (irrational beliefs, that are typically negative)

• consists of replacing the dysfunctional thoughts with ones that can be managed

^ an important component of CBT

Question 41

How can cognitive therapy treat depression

Answer 41

1. Helps to identify and change negative thinking associated with depressed feelings
2. Helps to focus on the positive things
3. Helps to manage the client’s problems

Question 42

What are the 2 techniques for behaviour modification

Answer 42

1. token economies

2. systematic desensitisation

Question 43

Describe token economies

Answer 43

= Artificial systems of reward and reinforcement where symbolic markers, e.g. coloured counters / fake money, are used to reward desirable behaviour, or alter undesirable behaviour

Commonly used in hospitals, classrooms, prisons, and for addiction treatment

secondary reinforcers/goals = when enough markers are collected, they can be exchanged for something more tangible, e.g. goods or privileges

^ slow accumulation = secondary reinforcer isn’t achieved

(Tokens are not usually withdrawn, instead, a different unpleasant consequence should occur)

Question 44

How is token economies better than simple reinforcement

Answer 44

Simple reinforcement - the person can become ‘full’, meaning they cease to respond to a secondary reinforcement

Token economies - accumulation of tokens leads to a tangible good/privilege, the person cannot be ‘full’

= Token economies are more effective

Question 45

What is a criticism of token economies

Answer 45

One a person leaves (e.g. addiction treatment, prison), they have difficulty maintaining improvement their behaviour

This issue can be avoided using a behavioural contract - establishes a mutually agreed upon standard of behaviour, therefore acting as a secondary reinforcer to effectively continue their desirable behaviour

Alcoholics Anonymous - achieve this through group meetings, where the goal is to not drink alcohol

Question 46

Describe systematic desensitisation

Answer 46

= The application of classical conditioning to fears and phobias in humans, undertaken by a psychologist who has been consulted by a person who realises they have a problem

Fears/phobias = considered undesirable behaviour, the object is to replace them with more productive and desirable behaviour, which are considered more appropriate responses to frightening situations

• The fear response is replaced with a more relaxed response, and the first part of the therapy is to practice relaxation techniques.

Question 47

Outline the process of systematic desensitisation

Answer 47

1. The psychologist works with the client to draw up a list of the most fear-provoking (holding a spider) to the least (seeing a picture of a spider)
2. Graded exposure: the psychologist gradually introduces these situations, from least to most fear-provoking, during therapy.

^ During the exposures, the client practices the relaxation techniques until they are comfortable enough to proceed to the next situation

3. This continues up the graded exposure process until the client is able to relax with the most fear-provoking situation

(takes time, cognitive arguments are also used with relaxation techniques)

Question 48

Outline the processes of learning

Answer 48

1. operant conditioning
2. classical conditioning
3. observational learning/model

Question 49

Define operant conditioning

Answer 49

a type of learning in which the consequences that follow a response determine whether the response is likely to be repeated

• Established by Edward Thorndike in his investigations of animal intelligence, later developed by Skinner

Question 50

Describe Thorndike’s experiments and findings

Answer 50

Experiment:
- placed cats in a ‘puzzle box’ and observed their behaviour

Findings:
- the cats learnt to escape by trial and error (trying different responses in a ‘blind, mechanical way’ and eliminated responses that didn’t work, until a response resulted in a desired outcome = escaping)

Conclusion:
- law and effect
= responses that are followed by a desirable outcome = respond with greater and greater frequency over time
= undesirable outcome = occur less frequently over time

= repitition strengthens learning (practice makes perfect)

Question 51

What was Skinner’s contribution to operant conditioning?

Answer 51

Developed the ‘operant chamber’ or ‘Skinner box’

Question 52

Define reinforcement

Answer 52

= any desirable consequence administered after a desirable response that strengthens and increases the likelihood of that response occurring over time.

Question 53

Describe the two types of reinforcement

Answer 53

Positive reinforcement
= when a response is followed by a desirable/positive event that is added to increase the likelihood of the response occurring again
e.g. rewards, approval, good grades, money

Negative reinforcement
= when a response is followed by an end to discomfort/undesirable event or the threat of punishment
e.g. a student following rules to avoid detention, cleaning room to avoid being grounded

Question 54

Define punishment

Answer 54

= any undesirable consequence (punisher) administered after an undesirable response that weakens or decreases the likelihood of that response occurring again.

• must be administered immediately after response to ‘maximise the effectiveness of the punishment’ (forms a clear link between behaviour and response)

Question 55

Describe the two types of punishment

Answer 55

Positive punishment
= when a response is followed by an undesirable/negative event that is added to decrease the likelihood of the response occurring again
e.g. a parent making their child do chores after they’ve been bad

Negative Punishment
= when a response is followed by taking away something seen as desirable away in order to decrease the likelihood of the response occurring again
e.g. a parent taking away their child’s pocket money for a week after they’ve been bad

Question 56

Define classical conditioning

Answer 56

= a term that is used to describe the process of learning when behaviours, events and stimuli become associated with each other and result in an involuntary, physiological response

e.g. seeing food = salvation, sudden loud noise = startled reaction

Question 57

Who developed classical conditioning?

Answer 57

Pavlov’s experiments highlighted the stages and processes involved with classical conditioning

• experiments with dogs using a bell and meat powder (food)

Question 58

Describe the process of classical conditioning using Pavlov’s experiment

Answer 58

BASELINE STAGE

• the bell (neutral stimulus) = no response
• the meat powder (unconditioned stimulus) = salvation (unconditioned response)

ASSOCIATION AND ACQUISITION STAGE
- bell (NS) repeatedly paired with meat powder (UCS) = salvation (UCR)

AFTER CONDITIONING

• bell (conditioned response) = salvation (conditioned response)
• no meat powder required

Question 59

What are the elements in classical conditioning

Answer 59

1. stimulus discrimination
2. stimulus generalisation
3. extinction
4. spontaneous recovery

Question 60

Define stimulus discrimination

Answer 60

= the ability to perceive the difference between two or more stimuli, even if they are similar

(too different to be considered the same)

Question 61

Define stimulus generalisation

Answer 61

= involves the likelihood that stimuli that are similar will result in the same response

e.g. a cat salivating when seeing a box of washing powder that looks the same as his food

Question 62

Define extinction

Answer 62

= the termination of a CR.

Occurs when the reinforcer (UCS) is removed so that the association is broken. The CS loses its strengths and eventually fails to cause a CR

e.g. the bell continues to not be paired with meat powder after resulting in salvation, the dog’s CR becomes extinct

Question 63

Define spontaneous recovery

Answer 63

= the reappearance of a CR after its extinction, when the CS is present again

e.g. if after extinction, the meat powder is paired with the bell again, spontaneous recovery will occur

Question 64

What is the Watson and Little Albert experiment

Answer 64

• experiment on Albert, a 11 month old boy

baseline:

• white rate (NS) = UCR
• loud noise (UCS) = UCR

association and acquisition
- white cat (CS) paired with loud noise (UCS) = fear response (UCR)

after conditioning
- white rate (CR) = fear response (CR)

generalisation of CR
- small white animals, white mask = CR

Question 65

What were the ethical conditions with Watson and Little Albert

Answer 65

consent - Albert’s mother wasn’t properly informed, so didn’t have proper consent

voluntary participation - the mother likely wouldn’t of been able to refuse the request, as she worked for Watson

• unethical to evoke fear, shouldn’t cause distress in any way
• wasn’t confidential
• Albert was never systematically desensitised

Question 66

Outline 3 comparisons between classical and operant conditioning

Answer 66

Basis of learning:
operant = associating a response with the consequence that follows it
classical = associating two stimuli, so that either can trigger the same response

Role of the learner
operant = is active (chooses to respond a certain way)
classical = passive (results in involuntary response)

Extinction process
operant = likelihood of certain responses decrease
classical = CR decreases when CS is presented many times without UCS

Question 67

Define observational learning/model

Answer 67

= occurs by watching others, noting the positive and negative consequences of their actions, and then imitating these actions.

• beneficial when trying to learn a new motor skill

(often referred to an extension of operant conditioning)

Question 68

Outline the procedure in observational learning (proposed by Bandura)

Answer 68

model - attention - retention - reproduction - motivation reinforcement - performance

Question 69

Define attention

Answer 69

= requires the individual to pay attention to the model’s behaviour to recognise the distinctive features of it

• more likely if the model is…
  1. known
  2. similar in nature to the observer
  3. has a high status
  4. attractive
  5. perceived as trustworthy
  6. the observer admires the model (status, expertise, power etc.)

Question 70

Define retention

Answer 70

= the observer must be able to remember the model’s behaviour (requires intelligence to retain info - intellectually impaired may struggle)

Question 71

Define reproduction

Answer 71

The learner must attempt to reproduce or copy what has been observed in order to demonstrate that learning has occurred.

• dependent on physical and environmental factors

Question 72

Define motivation and reinforcement

Answer 72

= the observer must be motivated to perform the behaviour in order to receive some form of reinforcement.

= the behaviour should have a high incentive value for the learner, otherwise its unlikely the behaviour will be carried out

Question 73

Describe Bandura’s research - experiment 1

Answer 73

24 kindergarten kids (equal number of boys and girls)

first experiment:

• two groups of children observed an adult playing with a Bo-bo doll
• group 1: adult punch, kicked and verbally abused the doll
• group 2: the adult wasn’t aggressive
• a third (control) group didn’t watch at all

Aim: The kids were then individually put in a room and observed through a one-way mirror.

Question 74

what were the main findings of experiment 1

Answer 74

children that observed aggressive adult = more aggressive than kids who didn’t observe aggressive adult

boys were more aggressive than girls, especially if the model was male rather than female

the girls who observed the aggressive model were more physically aggressive if the model was male, and more verbally aggressive if they were female

the boys also generalised their aggressive behaviours towards other toys

the group who observed the non-aggressive model showed very little aggression, although not always significantly less than the control group

(another experiment did the same but by the kids watching an aggressive movie - still acted aggressively but not as much than watching in person)

Question 75

explain Bandura’s experiment 2

Answer 75

three videos of an adult punching a Bo-bo doll were shown to different groups of kindy children.

The videos differed in terms of the consequences given to the adults - rewarded, punished or no consequence

Question 76

Explain the findings of experiment 2

Answer 76

kids who observed a reward or no consequence = more likely to behave aggressively than kids who observed a punishment

boys were more aggressive over all, but girls who observed a reward become almost equally aggressive

children who acted aggressively and were rewarded were more likely to act aggressively, even if observed punishment

= the children required a learned response, which they stored until an incentive was offered