cognition section - study :) Flashcards
Define memory
an active information-processing system that stores, organises and recovers information acquired through learning - crucial for survival
- sometimes called ‘mental representation’
Define encoding, storage and retrieval
- Encoding: memory begins when our senses take in different external and internal environments. This raw data (light rays, sound waves) has to be converted into a code that our brain can work with later.
- Encoding certain types of information takes place automatically without any mental effort
- Encoding different types of information tends to require more effort (attend the information, label it and associate it with other material / rehearse it until its familiar) - Storage: this encoded information is then stored (retained) in the memory system for a period of time.
- Retrieval: involves locating and recovering information stored in memory and bringing it into consciousness when needed to complete the cognitive task.
• Although these processes serve different purposes, they interact
o How information is encoding determines what information is stored and how that information will be retrieved
What is Atkinson-Shiffrin’s Multi-Store Model of Memory
Visualises memory as a system consisting of multiple memory stores, through which a stream of data flows for processing
This model emphasises the storage structures and suggests that if information is to be stored for a long time, it must pass through three memory stores: sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.
Define sensory memory
new sensory information (in the form of light, sound, taste etc.)
- an automatic process (we have no conscious control over)
- has 2 main sensory registers (holds info as an exact copy of its original form) - iconic and echoic memory
Describe sensory memory’s capacity and duration
capacity - unlimited
duration - a few seconds (if ignored, deemed unimportant, forget about it), just long enough to encode it into usable form and transfer it to STM for further processing
Define iconic memory
One of the main sensory registers of sensory memory (images)
function - registers shape, size, colour and form
duration - stores info as an icon for 1/2 second
capacity - unlimited
(icon = a fleeting image with picture-like qualities)
Define echoic memory
One of the main sensory registers (sounds)
function - registers auditory information
duration - temporary, sound remains as an echo for 3 - 4 seconds
capacity - unlimited
(echo - a brief continuation of activity in the auditory system after the stimulus has ended)
Define short term memory
Holds all the thoughts, information and experiences that we are aware of at any given time (a limited amount for a brief time - unless rehearsed)
Receives info from 2 sources:
- sensory memory
- long term memory
Describe STM’s capacity
George Miller - the average adult’s memory is limited to the number 7 (pieces of information), give or take 2
- When STM is full, new info can be added, as long as other bits of info ‘drop out’
- STM is sensitive to interruption
How can STM’s capacity be prolonged
1 - chunking
= grouping separate items into groups (chunks) so that they form a larger, single item
2- rehearsal
Describe STM’s duration
18 - 20 seconds (before info drops out)
- can be prolonged through rehearsal
Define LTM
- according the Atkinson-Shiffrin, once the info in STM has been processed, it is transferred to LTM
function:
- stores all of the memories, experiences, identity etc.
- when required later, we retrieve info by locating it in LTM and return it to conscious awareness
- info in LTM is organised and stored in a hierarchal network of concepts (nodes) connected by meaningful links
Define LTM
- according the Atkinson-Shiffrin, once the info in STM has been processed, it is transferred to LTM
function:
- stores all of the memories, experiences, identity etc.
- when required later, we retrieve info by locating it in LTM and return it to conscious awareness
- info in LTM is organised and stored in a hierarchal network of concepts (nodes) connected by meaningful links
Describe LTM’s capacity and duration
capacity - unlimited
duration - relatively permanent (can be difficult to retrieve)
Outline the theories on why we can’t retrieve every LTM
1 - retrieval failure theory
= cannot access the correct retrieval clues needed to activate a specific memory.
2 - decay theory
= the chemical memory trace of the information created when the memory was formed fades away over time due to lack of use (haven’t needed to attend to the information)
3 - interference theory
= specific information is blocked from entering our consciousness by other memories
4 - motivated forgetting
= we don’t want to remember painful or traumatic memories, so we consciously or unconsciously forget their retrieval
What are the different types of memories in LTM
- LTM is a separate memory store and can hold different types of memories
1 . implicit memory (or ‘procedural’)
= non-conscious memory of skills and actions
- initially requires effort to learn, later becomes automatic
- achieved through repetition and practice
e.g. tying shoe laces
- explicit (or ‘declarative’ memory)
= conscious memory of facts and personally significant events
- more complex than implicit
- consciously recalled and declared
- can be assessed by recall and recognition, as well as the context in which the event occurred
explicit memory is further divided
What is explicit memory’s subdivisions
- semantic memory
= impersonal facts (objects, names etc.)
- quite resistant to forgetting - episodic memory
= memory of time and place - an autobiographical memory (wedding etc.)
- emotionally attached to episodic memories (personally significant)
- part of memory affected by Alzheimer’s
Outline the LTM retrieval methods
Memory retrieval requires revisiting the nerve pathways the brain created when forming the memory.
- Recall
= supplying/reproducing facts/info that is stored in LTM without cues for assistance a part from the question being asked
e.g. “what is your name” - Recognition
= identifying the correct answer from a list of possible alternatives called distracters.
- superior to recall, provides retrieval cues that act as prompts for info we otherwise wouldn’t recall
e.g. multiple choice test - Re-learning
= learning something that has previously been learnt
- the most successful measure of retrieving info
List the factors that help us retrieve LTM
- retrieval cues (context-dependent, state dependent)
- rehearsal (maintenance rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal)
- serial position effect
- chunking
Describe retrieval cues as a retrieval factor
= the most effective ways of improving retrieval from LTM, creates the conditions that were present when the memory was formed
Two categories:
- context dependent cues
= the physical surroundings (context) present when learning something and forming a memory, provides useful eternal cues that assist retrieval later.
- because you recall the info in the same setting in which the memory was formed.
- we lose enternal cues when we try retrieval in a different setting, and struggle to retrieve
(GODDEN AND BADDELEY - different contexts (18-20%), same context (30-40%)
- state dependent cues
= the physical and psychological state that exists during learning can be a strong cue for memory retrieval later.
e.g. feeling hot may make you remember another time you felt hot
Describe rehearsal as a retrieval factor
= consciously manipulating info to improve the duration of STM (in order to exceed 18-20 second duration, greater chance of transferring to LTM)
Two categories:
- maintenance rehearsal
= involves repeating info for a number of times so it can be held in STM longer
A - allows for longer than 18-20 sec duration
L - easily interrupted by other info, doesn’t improve understanding - elaborative rehearsal
= involves adding more detail to a memory during encoding to create meaningful links
A - adds more understanding, adds more detail (improves retrieval chances)
L - takes longer, more conscious effort
Describe serial position effect as a retrieval factor
= a pattern of recall for list items, where recall is better for items at the BEGINNING (primary effect) or END (recency effect) than items in the middle
- the order in which we process info is important
- GLANZER AND CUNITZ - a study that supports this effect
What causes serial position effect
- a widely accepted theory is that the difference between STM and LTM is important
- the last few items are remembered (still fresh in STM)
- the first few items are remembered (received more attention and rehearsal, therefore transferred to LTM)
- middle items are forgotten (too late for LTM and too early for STM)
= further supports the notion that LTM and STM are different memories
Define chunking
= grouping items into separate chunks/groups, to form a larger, single item that we can effectively increase STM capacity
Define the working memory model
A multi-component model of working memory.
- developed by Baddeley and Hitch
Describes the structure and function of working memory in terms of 3 components
(known as ‘working’ memory as it emphasises working, which differs from other STM models, e.g. Atkinson-Shiffrin)
What are the working memory’s 3 components
- the phonological loop - subset/slave system of working memory
- visuo-spatial sketchpad - subset/slave system of working memory
- central executive - attention controller
- separate, function independently, but also interact
Describe the phonological loop
Also called verbal working memory (specialised for verbal info, which is stored in a sound based or phonological form)
= activated whenever you read, speak or repeat words to yourself to remember them
Duration - 2 seconds (brief period of time)
Capacity - temporarily stores a limited amount of verbal speech-like info
Crucial features:
- sub-vocal maintenance rehearsal (internally repeating words over and over again, similar to a loop)
- internal unspoken speech during rehearsal (interrupted = phonological storage cannot occur)
Define word-length effect
as the lengths of the words in a list increases, the number of words that can be remembered decreases
- shorter syllable words are easier to rehearse in the phonological loop compared to longer syllable words, due to the loop’s short duration (2 seconds)
Describe the visuo-spatial sketchpad
- also known as visual working memory
= temporarily stores a limited amount of visual and spatial information for a brief amount of time, and acts as a mental workspace for storing and manipulating this info
visual info = anything you can see/visualise
spatial info = visual location of objects in space
Define dual-task experiment
= where participants are required to use one sub-system (e.g. visuo-spatial sketchpad), while simultaneously performing another task using another sub-system (e.g. phonological loop)
Describe the central executive
- the most important and complex
functions:
- controls attention
- integrates info from the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad (and info received from LTM)
- co-ordinates the flow of info between working memory and LTM
= because it manipulates info, it is known as the working component of working memory
List 6 examples of what they central executive does
- directs your attention to activities you are doing
- filters useful and non-useful info
- combines info from the other 2 components
- selects, deletes and re-orders info
- add info from LTM when required to guide mental processes
- directs info back to LTM when no longer required
What was the issue with working memory?
Baddeley said it didn’t explain how working memory links with LTM
- added a 4th component known as the episodic buffer
Describe the episodic buffer
= a sub-system of working memory which enables the different components to interact with LTM (not fully described)
Assumptions include:
- limited capacity (holds around 4 chunks of info of any form)
- temporary storage system
- controlled by the central executive
- directly linked to LTM, but is separate and has its own storage space
Why is it called the ‘episodic buffer’
Episodic =’pulls together’ separate bits of info from working memory and LTM, then combines them into scenes or ‘episodes’
Buffer - provides a temporary working space, like a mental workbench
Describe a scenario where you are thinking of a route to drive somewhere using the working memory model
- use the phonological loop to sub-vocally rehearse the directions, to keep the route directions active in the loop
- you would use your visuo-spatial sketchpad to visualise the route
- your central executive would direct the episodic buffer to combine the auditory info and visual-spatial info
- the episodic buffer would direct LTM info about landmarks etc.
- your central executive would use this info to plan your journey
- when needed to make adjustments, your episodic buffer would be used as a mental workbench to make any adjustments to the route
Fill in the diagram:
---------
< ^ >
--------- < --------- > --------
^
---------
central executive
VSSP Episodic buffer PL
LTM
Define behaviour modification
= The application of classical and operant conditioning techniques to human behaviour and learning.
- Uses reinforcement, and occasionally punishment, to modify or change unwanted behaviours, and strengthen desirable ones.
- Sometimes known as behaviour therapy, as it can be used to treat psychological problems
Define cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT)
= a technique used by psychologists that is based on the premise that cognitions (thoughts) influence feelings, and that subsequent behaviours and emotions influence thoughts
- Has a behavioural and cognitive component
What is the process of cognitive behavioural therapy
The therapist helps the client identify unhelpful thoughts, feelings and emotions.
^ unhelpful = causing distraction and distress to the client’s everyday life
- The therapist helps to change these behaviours through behaviour modification, relaxation and other behavioural change techniques
Define cognitive therapy
= based on the theory that distressing emotions are the result of maladaptive thinking (irrational beliefs, that are typically negative)
- consists of replacing the dysfunctional thoughts with ones that can be managed
^ an important component of CBT
How can cognitive therapy treat depression
- Helps to identify and change negative thinking associated with depressed feelings
- Helps to focus on the positive things
- Helps to manage the client’s problems
What are the 2 techniques for behaviour modification
- token economies
2. systematic desensitisation
Describe token economies
= Artificial systems of reward and reinforcement where symbolic markers, e.g. coloured counters / fake money, are used to reward desirable behaviour, or alter undesirable behaviour
Commonly used in hospitals, classrooms, prisons, and for addiction treatment
secondary reinforcers/goals = when enough markers are collected, they can be exchanged for something more tangible, e.g. goods or privileges
^ slow accumulation = secondary reinforcer isn’t achieved
(Tokens are not usually withdrawn, instead, a different unpleasant consequence should occur)
How is token economies better than simple reinforcement
Simple reinforcement - the person can become ‘full’, meaning they cease to respond to a secondary reinforcement
Token economies - accumulation of tokens leads to a tangible good/privilege, the person cannot be ‘full’
= Token economies are more effective
What is a criticism of token economies
One a person leaves (e.g. addiction treatment, prison), they have difficulty maintaining improvement their behaviour
This issue can be avoided using a behavioural contract - establishes a mutually agreed upon standard of behaviour, therefore acting as a secondary reinforcer to effectively continue their desirable behaviour
Alcoholics Anonymous - achieve this through group meetings, where the goal is to not drink alcohol
Describe systematic desensitisation
= The application of classical conditioning to fears and phobias in humans, undertaken by a psychologist who has been consulted by a person who realises they have a problem
Fears/phobias = considered undesirable behaviour, the object is to replace them with more productive and desirable behaviour, which are considered more appropriate responses to frightening situations
- The fear response is replaced with a more relaxed response, and the first part of the therapy is to practice relaxation techniques.
Outline the process of systematic desensitisation
- The psychologist works with the client to draw up a list of the most fear-provoking (holding a spider) to the least (seeing a picture of a spider)
- Graded exposure: the psychologist gradually introduces these situations, from least to most fear-provoking, during therapy.
^ During the exposures, the client practices the relaxation techniques until they are comfortable enough to proceed to the next situation
- This continues up the graded exposure process until the client is able to relax with the most fear-provoking situation
(takes time, cognitive arguments are also used with relaxation techniques)
Outline the processes of learning
- operant conditioning
- classical conditioning
- observational learning/model
Define operant conditioning
a type of learning in which the consequences that follow a response determine whether the response is likely to be repeated
- Established by Edward Thorndike in his investigations of animal intelligence, later developed by Skinner
Describe Thorndike’s experiments and findings
Experiment:
- placed cats in a ‘puzzle box’ and observed their behaviour
Findings:
- the cats learnt to escape by trial and error (trying different responses in a ‘blind, mechanical way’ and eliminated responses that didn’t work, until a response resulted in a desired outcome = escaping)
Conclusion:
- law and effect
= responses that are followed by a desirable outcome = respond with greater and greater frequency over time
= undesirable outcome = occur less frequently over time
= repitition strengthens learning (practice makes perfect)
What was Skinner’s contribution to operant conditioning?
Developed the ‘operant chamber’ or ‘Skinner box’
Define reinforcement
= any desirable consequence administered after a desirable response that strengthens and increases the likelihood of that response occurring over time.
Describe the two types of reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
= when a response is followed by a desirable/positive event that is added to increase the likelihood of the response occurring again
e.g. rewards, approval, good grades, money
Negative reinforcement
= when a response is followed by an end to discomfort/undesirable event or the threat of punishment
e.g. a student following rules to avoid detention, cleaning room to avoid being grounded
Define punishment
= any undesirable consequence (punisher) administered after an undesirable response that weakens or decreases the likelihood of that response occurring again.
- must be administered immediately after response to ‘maximise the effectiveness of the punishment’ (forms a clear link between behaviour and response)
Describe the two types of punishment
Positive punishment
= when a response is followed by an undesirable/negative event that is added to decrease the likelihood of the response occurring again
e.g. a parent making their child do chores after they’ve been bad
Negative Punishment
= when a response is followed by taking away something seen as desirable away in order to decrease the likelihood of the response occurring again
e.g. a parent taking away their child’s pocket money for a week after they’ve been bad
Define classical conditioning
= a term that is used to describe the process of learning when behaviours, events and stimuli become associated with each other and result in an involuntary, physiological response
e.g. seeing food = salvation, sudden loud noise = startled reaction
Who developed classical conditioning?
Pavlov’s experiments highlighted the stages and processes involved with classical conditioning
- experiments with dogs using a bell and meat powder (food)
Describe the process of classical conditioning using Pavlov’s experiment
BASELINE STAGE
- the bell (neutral stimulus) = no response
- the meat powder (unconditioned stimulus) = salvation (unconditioned response)
ASSOCIATION AND ACQUISITION STAGE
- bell (NS) repeatedly paired with meat powder (UCS) = salvation (UCR)
AFTER CONDITIONING
- bell (conditioned response) = salvation (conditioned response)
- no meat powder required
What are the elements in classical conditioning
- stimulus discrimination
- stimulus generalisation
- extinction
- spontaneous recovery
Define stimulus discrimination
= the ability to perceive the difference between two or more stimuli, even if they are similar
(too different to be considered the same)
Define stimulus generalisation
= involves the likelihood that stimuli that are similar will result in the same response
e.g. a cat salivating when seeing a box of washing powder that looks the same as his food
Define extinction
= the termination of a CR.
Occurs when the reinforcer (UCS) is removed so that the association is broken. The CS loses its strengths and eventually fails to cause a CR
e.g. the bell continues to not be paired with meat powder after resulting in salvation, the dog’s CR becomes extinct
Define spontaneous recovery
= the reappearance of a CR after its extinction, when the CS is present again
e.g. if after extinction, the meat powder is paired with the bell again, spontaneous recovery will occur
What is the Watson and Little Albert experiment
- experiment on Albert, a 11 month old boy
baseline:
- white rate (NS) = UCR
- loud noise (UCS) = UCR
association and acquisition
- white cat (CS) paired with loud noise (UCS) = fear response (UCR)
after conditioning
- white rate (CR) = fear response (CR)
generalisation of CR
- small white animals, white mask = CR
What were the ethical conditions with Watson and Little Albert
consent - Albert’s mother wasn’t properly informed, so didn’t have proper consent
voluntary participation - the mother likely wouldn’t of been able to refuse the request, as she worked for Watson
- unethical to evoke fear, shouldn’t cause distress in any way
- wasn’t confidential
- Albert was never systematically desensitised
Outline 3 comparisons between classical and operant conditioning
Basis of learning:
operant = associating a response with the consequence that follows it
classical = associating two stimuli, so that either can trigger the same response
Role of the learner
operant = is active (chooses to respond a certain way)
classical = passive (results in involuntary response)
Extinction process
operant = likelihood of certain responses decrease
classical = CR decreases when CS is presented many times without UCS
Define observational learning/model
= occurs by watching others, noting the positive and negative consequences of their actions, and then imitating these actions.
- beneficial when trying to learn a new motor skill
(often referred to an extension of operant conditioning)
Outline the procedure in observational learning (proposed by Bandura)
model - attention - retention - reproduction - motivation reinforcement - performance
Define attention
= requires the individual to pay attention to the model’s behaviour to recognise the distinctive features of it
- more likely if the model is…
1. known
2. similar in nature to the observer
3. has a high status
4. attractive
5. perceived as trustworthy
6. the observer admires the model (status, expertise, power etc.)
Define retention
= the observer must be able to remember the model’s behaviour (requires intelligence to retain info - intellectually impaired may struggle)
Define reproduction
The learner must attempt to reproduce or copy what has been observed in order to demonstrate that learning has occurred.
- dependent on physical and environmental factors
Define motivation and reinforcement
= the observer must be motivated to perform the behaviour in order to receive some form of reinforcement.
= the behaviour should have a high incentive value for the learner, otherwise its unlikely the behaviour will be carried out
Describe Bandura’s research - experiment 1
24 kindergarten kids (equal number of boys and girls)
first experiment:
- two groups of children observed an adult playing with a Bo-bo doll
- group 1: adult punch, kicked and verbally abused the doll
- group 2: the adult wasn’t aggressive
- a third (control) group didn’t watch at all
Aim: The kids were then individually put in a room and observed through a one-way mirror.
what were the main findings of experiment 1
children that observed aggressive adult = more aggressive than kids who didn’t observe aggressive adult
boys were more aggressive than girls, especially if the model was male rather than female
the girls who observed the aggressive model were more physically aggressive if the model was male, and more verbally aggressive if they were female
the boys also generalised their aggressive behaviours towards other toys
the group who observed the non-aggressive model showed very little aggression, although not always significantly less than the control group
(another experiment did the same but by the kids watching an aggressive movie - still acted aggressively but not as much than watching in person)
explain Bandura’s experiment 2
three videos of an adult punching a Bo-bo doll were shown to different groups of kindy children.
The videos differed in terms of the consequences given to the adults - rewarded, punished or no consequence
Explain the findings of experiment 2
kids who observed a reward or no consequence = more likely to behave aggressively than kids who observed a punishment
boys were more aggressive over all, but girls who observed a reward become almost equally aggressive
children who acted aggressively and were rewarded were more likely to act aggressively, even if observed punishment
= the children required a learned response, which they stored until an incentive was offered
