Developmental Psychology

Question 1

What was the first theory and what study is it based on

Answer 1

Erikson’s Theory of Identity Development

• Based on extensive research using case studies, studying a range of people in different cultures
  e. g. Denmark, Germany, wealthy American adolescents, Sioux Indians and Martin Luther King

Question 2

What did Erikson believe in?

Answer 2

= identity development occurs through a combination of the effects of psychological process, which take place in the individual (psycho) and the experiences of individuals during their lifetime, particularly through their interaction with other people.

KEY TERMS:

• psychological process
• individual
• experiences
• interaction with others

Question 3

Identify the stages in Erikson’s Theory

Answer 3

1. Trust vs Mistrust - 0-1 infancy
   - infants are dependent on others for food, warmth and love and trust that others will provide these needs
   - needs are met consistently and responsively = secure attachment with caregiver, learn to trust others
   - failure to bond = mistrust of the world around them
2. Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt - 1-3 toddler
   - learn to talk, walk and feed themselves = less dependent, autonomous
   - success at greater independence = self-confidence, self-control, mistakes are easily corrected
   - overprotection/disapproval from parents = shame and doubt on ability to be independent
3. Initiative vs Guilt - 3-6 early childhood
   - social and motor skills become highly developed
   - dilemma = to balance the wish to achieve more and take more responsibility, while accepting parental control and discipline without guilt
4. Industry vs Inferiority - 6-12 middle childhood
   - industry is competence and is achieved through learning at school, relationships with friends and peers increase
   - children who are rewarded for their industry = develop a sense of competence
   - failure to achieve competence = feeling of inferiority
5. Identity vs Role Confusion - 12-18 adolescence
   - to answer ‘who am i?’, an adolescence must integrate all resolutions to the earlier crisis to achieve a sense of identity, incorporating all elements of self
   - failure = role confusion, indecision, avoidance of commitment
   * a major crisis that must be resolved for a successful transmission into adulthood
6. Intimacy vs Isolation - 18-40 early adulthood
   - achievement of intimacy with another person is important
   - failure to develop sense of identity = young adult is incapable of forming an intimate relationship, therefore is isolated
7. Generativity vs Stagnation - 40-65 middle adulthood
   - the main focus is to work and the maintenance of family relationships
   - success for both areas = sense of accomplishment and leaving a legacy for the future
   - failure = self-centredness and stagnation
8. Integrity vs Despair - 65-death late adulthood
   - time to reflect on one’s contribution and view it either as positive + satisfactory, or unsatisfactory + disapointing
   - fulfilled life = view death with a sense of integrity
   - unfulfilled life = death will be despaired and even feared

Question 4

Describe Erikson’s Stages

Answer 4

• Erikson viewed Identity Development as a progression through these sequential stages
• Each stage corresponds with a different period in the lifespan
• In each stage the individual has to deal with a different identity (psychosocial) crisis that is normal for people in that stage in life

Question 5

Define psychosocial crisis

Answer 5

A social dilemma an individual faces in adjusting to society, each crisis involves a struggle between two opposing tendencies (one which comes from our internal personal needs and the other from the demands of society), and both are experienced by the person.

Question 6

Describe what Erikson said about psychosocial crisis’?

Answer 6

Impact on us:

• our personality and interactions with others are shaped by how we deal with others or resolve psychosocial crisis.
• our internal needs (what we want from ourselves) change as we get older, as well as the expectations and demands made by other people (family, teachers, society) - both put pressure on us to change

Progression:

• stages can overlap, meaning two crisis may occur at the same time
• the age at which we go through each stage can vary, but the order in which people progress is fixed
• it is necessary to experience each crisis (not necessarily to resolve them) before proceeding to the next stage.

Resolution & Outcome:

• each crisis needs to be resolved for a healthy identity development to occur (there can be a positive/good or negative/bad outcome depending on the individual’s ability to resolve each crisis)
• successful resolution of each crisis will be in favour of the positive characteristic (e.g. trust out of trust vs mistrust, and integrity out of integrity vs despair)
• If a crisis isn’t resolved, Erikson warned that it would have a negative effect on the individual’s social relationship
• each crisis is not a ‘catastrophe’, but rather a turning point in life

Question 7

Outline how Erikson’s Theory can be useful

Answer 7

• useful for understanding the major changes that occur throughout the lifespan
• Describes the changes that occur throughout the entire lifespan, unlike other theories
• Describes how healthy personality development is achieved

Question 8

Outline limitations/criticisms of Erikson’s Theory

Answer 8

1. lacks experimental evidence to support the theory (developed from case studies, not scientifically controlled research)
2. doesn’t consider how socio-cultural influences can have differing effects on males and females (he focussed on males)
3. critcisms about ‘identity’ being found in adolescents - argued that many people struggle with identity in adulthood
4. lack of mentioning the importance of ‘work’, which is considered to be a major part in identity formation

Question 9

What is the second theory and what studies is it based on?

Answer 9

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

• based on studies using cross-sectional and longitudinal research methods

Question 10

Define moral development and moral dilemma

Answer 10

The gradual development of an individual’s concept of what is right and wrong. It includes the development of a conscious, religious values and social attitudes.

A social problem which has two or more solutions, each of which is ‘wrong’ in some way

Question 11

Describe Kohlberg’s Cross-Sectional studies

Answer 11

Background:
- he compared groups of people at different ages.

His assumption:

• if the children in the various age groups differed consistently from each other in their moral reasoning for a particular dilemma, then it was likely this difference was due to the difference in age
• he obtained evidence of this

Question 12

Describe Kohlberg’s Longitudinal study

Answer 12

He followed a group of 10-16 year olds for nearly 20 years to test how people of different ages use moral reasoning.

He presented each participant with various moral dilemmas, and they were required to judge the ‘wrongness’ or ‘rightness’ of the behaviour of the people involved with the dilemmas.

He was interested in the kind of thinking participants used to arrive at their decisions and the reasons they gave of their judgements.

Question 13

What did Kohlberg find?

Answer 13

He concluded that the development of moral reasoning progresses sequentially through a series of developmental stages.

• each stage represents a more complex way of thinking.

He also found that not all individuals…

1. develop the moral reasoning associated with each stage
2. go through each stage of their lifetime

Question 14

What are Kohlberg’s 3 levels of moral development?

Answer 14

1. Preconventional level (0-9 years)
   - stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation (OPO)
   - stage 2: Naively Egotistical Orientation (NEO)
2. Conventional level (9-15 years)
   - stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl Orientation
   - stage 4: Law-And-Social-Order-Maintaining Orientation
3. Postconventional level (16+)
   - stage 5: Legalistic-Social-Contract Orientation
   - stage 6: Universal-Ethical Orientation

Question 15

Describe level 1 - the ‘Preconventional Level’

Answer 15

Ages 0-9
Children have little/no awareness of moral behaviour
They see rules as something they have to follow because authority figures tell them to

Involves Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation (OPO)

• children follow rules to avoid punishment.
• behaviour is based on fear not what is ‘right’/’wrong
• by the end of stage 1, children show signs of moral behaviour and concern for others

Involves Stage 2: Naively Egotistical Orientation (NEO)

• children start to think they’ll be rewarded if they do something ‘right’
• they will do something ‘right’ to please others, rather than because they think it is the right thing to do
• some concern for the view of others

Question 16

Describe level 2 - The Conventional Level

Answer 16

Ages 9-15
They are considerate for the thoughts and feelings of others.
They have moral values and seek to obey rules set by others because they are motivated by the approval of others.
The rules of others are clearly recognised and are given serious consideration

Stage 3- Good Boy/Nice Girl Orientation

• the preadolescent obeys the rules to please others and gain approval from people who are important in their lives.
• important to have others think you are ‘good’ or ‘nice’
• find it difficult to say ‘no’ to friends and resisting peer pressure

Stage 4- Law-And-Social-Order-Maintaining Orientation

• the adolescent’s focus shifts to social institutions (law, school, church)
• they seek to avoid guilt or shame which comes from criticisms from authoritative figures (police, teachers, priests)
• conform to maintain social order
• accept rules and laws without question (law-abiding behaviour)

Question 17

Describe level 3 - Postconventional level

Answer 17

Ages 16+
Involves true morality
An individual’s decision to do what is ‘right’ is guided by their conscience
At times, their conscience may conflict with society’s laws
* Morally ‘right’ and legal proper is not always the same thing

Stage 5- Legalistic-Social-Contract Orientation

• individual’s choose moral principles to guide their behaviour, being careful not to interfere with the rights of others.
• individuals are likely to challenge the law, as they realise laws are not completely fixed and can be changed to better serve people

Stage 6- Universal-Ethical Orientation

• the individual knows that what is morally right is not simply what the majority of people want to do
• individuals have highly individualistic moral beliefs
• moral beliefs sometimes conflict with their society’s views of what is ‘right’ and ‘wrong’
• they tend to follow their conscience even if it means getting friends or society ‘offside’

Question 18

Outline some limitations/critiques of Kohlberg’s theory

Answer 18

• doesn’t accurately describe moral development in females - data was collected mainly from men

Gilligan:

• females use different moral reasoning to males when dealing with moral dilemmas. Males = problem solving approach, females = concerned with how others ‘feel’ about consequences/events/behaviours. The different socialisation of girls and boys equal different values.
• what people say and do when presented with a moral dilemma are very different things. Individuals may say they will act in a different way, and then act differently when faced with the moral dilemma. Therefore, difficult to judge what level they are actually on.
• data collection was criticised. Research relied heavily on children’s understanding of language and ability to communicate their thoughts into words.
• cultural differences not addressed. Didn’t take into account how different cultures and religions hold different values and ethical principles.

Question 19

What is Piaget’s Theory on Cognitive Development

Answer 19

Proposes that we move through 4 distinct and sequential stages from birth to adulthood in developing our cognitive abilities.

• each stage is associated with a chronological age range
• individuals do not jump to each stage on their birthday - some people may be more capable of advanced thinking than their chronological age suggests, but may still use mental abilities associated with an earlier stage.

Question 20

What are the stages in Piaget’s theory

Answer 20

1. sensorimotor stage (0-2 years)
2. pre-operational stage (2-7 years)
3. concrete operational stage (7-12 years)
4. formal operational stage (12+)

Question 21

Describe the sensorimotor stage

Answer 21

First stage of cognitive development (age 0-2)

Thinking associated with this stage:
= infants construct their understanding of the world by coordinating their sensory experiences (vision, touch) with motor (movement) abilities.

Key accomplishment:
1. object permanence = the understanding that objects still exist even if they can’t be seen or touched
E.g. peekaboo

Question 22

Describe the pre-operational stage

Answer 22

Ages: 2-7 years

Thinking associated with this stage:
= much more sophisticated, able to internally represent events

Key accomplishment:
1. Egocentrism = they are unable to see things from another person’s perspective
E.g. Mountain Task

Question 23

Describe the concrete-operational stage

Answer 23

Ages 7-12

Thinking associated:
= revolves around what children know and what they experience through their senses

Key Accomplishments:

1. Conservation = the idea that an object doesn’t change its weight/mass/volume/area when it changes appearance or shape.
   E.g. same amount of water in different shaped glasses
2. Classification = the ability to organise information into categorise based on their common features
   E.g. categorising different types of animals

Question 24

Describe the formal operational stage

Answer 24

Ages 12+

Thinking associated:
= more complex thought process, thinking is sophisticated

Key accomplishments

1. Abstract thinking = a way of thinking that doesn’t rely on being able to see or visualise things in order to understand concepts
   e. g. questions such as “what is honesty?”
2. Logical thinking = develop strategies to problem solve, identify a range of solutions, develop hypotheses and systematically test solutions
   E.g. doing an experiment to test a hypothesis

Question 25

Define schemas

Answer 25

A set of linked mental representations or the world, which we use to understand and respond to situations.

• They are the basic building blocks of cognitive models which enable us to form mental representations of the world
• The assumption is that we store these mental representations and apply them when needed.
• Piaget emphasised the importance of schemas in cognitive development, and described how they were developed or acquired.

increasing the number and complexity of the schemata that a person had learnt = the development of a person’s mental processes

E.g. a person may have a schema about buying food at a restaurant, which includes ordering from a menu, eating it and paying the bill etc. which we use both to understand and respond to this situation.

Question 26

Define assimilation

Answer 26

When we use an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.

E.g. a young child sees a man who is bald and has long frizzy hair on his sides. Due to his existing schema about people with that hair, he thinks the man is a clown.

Question 27

Define accomodation

Answer 27

When the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation

e.g. the boy’s father tells the boy the difference between the man and a clown. With this new knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of clowns to better fit (accomodate) the concept of a ‘clown’.

Question 28

Define equillibration

Answer 28

The occurrence of when schemas can deal with new information through assimilation.

Question 29

Describe Piaget’s mountain task

Answer 29

Purpose:
- used to test egocentrism
= the inability to see things from other people’s point of view

Details:

• used a diorama, consisted of 3 mountains made of paper-mâche
• each mountain was a different size, shape and colour and each had a different landmark on top (a cross, hut and snow)
• first the child was asked to walk around the diorama and become familiar with the features on all sides
• they then sat on one side of the mountain, and a doll was placed on the other side of the first mountain
• the child was shown several photos of the mountains from different viewpoints, and asked which viewpoint the doll could see
• this process was repeated for each of the mountains

Findings:
- children up to about 7 usually chose the picture which showed their own perspective, rather than that of the dolls

Conclusion
- seeing things from different people’s perspectives occur at a later age when children stop focussing on themselves (an ability called ‘decentering)

Question 30

Describe Bandura’s social theory experiment based on observational learning

Answer 30

Aim:
= Conducted a controlled experiment study to investigate if social behaviours (e.g. aggression) can be acquired by observation and imitation

Sample
= tested 36 boys and 36 girls between 3 to 6 years old

Method
= a lab experiment was used, in which the independent variable (the type of model) was manipulated in three conditions:
1. aggressive model is shown to 24 children
2. non-aggressive model is shown to 24 children
3. no model shown to 24 children (controlled condition)

Question 31

Describe the results and conclusion from Banduras’ experiment on social theory based on observational learning

Answer 31

Results
- observed aggressive model = more likely to imitate aggressive responses compared to other conditions
-