personal relatioships

Question 1

What is the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) and how does it influence relationship formation?

Answer 1

The MHC is a set of genes involved in immune system function. Research suggests that individuals may be subconsciously attracted to those with dissimilar MHC genes to enhance offspring immune system diversity.

Question 2

What psychological theory did Hazan & Shaver (1987) explore in their research on relationship formation?

Answer 2

Hazan & Shaver explored the Internal Working Model based on Bowlby’s attachment theory, suggesting that early attachment experiences influence adult romantic relationships.

Question 3

What are some methodological limitations of Hazan & Shaver’s (1987) study?

Answer 3

Limitations include reliance on self-reported data, which may be biased, a cross-sectional design that doesn’t establish causality, and cultural bias, as the study was based in the U.S.

Question 4

What challenges do researchers face when studying relationship formation?

Answer 4

Challenges include bias from self-reports, difficulty in establishing causality due to cross-sectional designs, lack of ecological validity in lab studies, and cultural bias, as many studies focus on Western university students.

Question 5

Why is it difficult to isolate a single factor in the study of relationship formation?

Answer 5

Attraction is influenced by biological, psychological, and social components, making it challenging to pinpoint any one factor as the primary driver of relationship formation.

Question 6

define formation of personal relationships

Answer 6

formation of personal relationships refers to the process in which an individual develop a emotional, romantic, or social bonds. these relationships can range from platonic friendships, romantic partnerships to professional connections. This process can be explained through a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors, which interact in complex ways to shape how and why we form these connections.

Question 7

Define biological approach to personal relationships

Answer 7

Biological approach to personal relationships refers to a perspective that explains attraction and relationship formation through genetic, hormonal, and neurochemical factors. It emphasizes evolutionary mechanisms, such as sexual selection, and the influence of biological processes on interpersonal connections.

Question 8

Define cognitive approach to personal relation ships

Answer 8

The cognitive approach to personal relationships refers to a perspective that focusues on how mental processes, such as perception, memory, and decision-making—shape human attraction and relationship formation. This perspective emphasizes the role of schemas, attribution styles, and cognitive biases in interpreting and maintaining relationships.

Question 9

Define socio cultural approach to personal relationships

Answer 9

The sociocultural approach to personal relationships refers to a perspective that focuses on how social and cultural factors—such as societal norms, traditions, and cultural expectations—shape personal relationships. This perspective emphasizes the influence of social identity, conformity, and cultural values on relationship formation and maintenance.

Question 10

Define major histocompatibility complex

Answer 10

major histocompatibility complex is a group of genes responsible for immune system function. Research suggests that people may be subconsciously attracted to partners with dissimilar MHC genes to enhance immune diversity in offspring.

Question 11

Limitations of Wedekind et al

Answer 11

Limited ecological validity – Attraction in a lab setting may not reflect real-world relationships.

Overemphasis on scent – Attraction involves multiple factors, including personality and social compatibility.

Heteronormativity bias – Assumes a strictly heterosexual model of attraction.

Cultural bias – Conducted primarily with Western participants, limiting generalizability.

Question 13

Define Internal Working Model (IWM)

Answer 13

Internal working model is a mental framework developed in early childhood based on attachment experiences with caregivers. It shapes expectations and behaviors in future relationships.

Question 14

Define Attachment theory by Bowlby

Answer 14

Attachment Theory (Bowlby, 1969) is a psychological theory stating that early interactions with caregivers influence emotional bonds and relationship patterns throughout life.

Question 15

Define Attachment styles

Answer 15

Attachment Styles refers to the patterns of emotional bonds formed based on early childhood experiences.

Question 16

Define secure attachment

Answer 16

Secure Attachment is Characterized by trust, emotional stability, and positive relationship experiences.

Question 17

Define avoidant attachment

Answer 17

Avoidant Attachment is characterized by emotional distance, fear of dependence, and reluctance to commit.

Question 18

define anxious attachment

Answer 18

Anxious Attachment is characterized by insecurity, fear of abandonment, and a high need for closeness.

Question 19

Discuss limitations to the biological approach in studying the formation of personal relationships (reductionism)

Answer 19

One limitation to the biological approach Is that it tends to oversimplifies human attraction by focusing only on genetic and chemical processes. Human relationships are influenced by psychological, social, and cultural factors, which are not fully accounted for in biological explanations.

Question 20

Discuss limitations to the biological approach in studying the formation of personal relationships (Correlation vs Causation)

Answer 20

One limitation to the biological approach Is that many biological studies on attraction show correlations between genetic/hormonal factors and attraction but do not establish direct cause-and-effect relationships. Other variables, such as personal preferences or environmental influences, may also contribute.

Question 21

Discuss limitations to the biological approach in studying the formation of personal relationships (ecological validity)

Answer 21

One limitation to the biological approach is that it has limited ecological validity. Many biological studies on attraction are conducted in controlled lab environments, making it difficult to determine if the same effects occur in natural social interactions.

Question 22

Define communication in relationships

Answer 22

Communication in relationships refers to the process of expressing thoughts, emotions, and needs between partners. Effective communication plays a crucial role in the development and maintenance of personal relationships. Communication patterns can either strengthen or weaken relationships, depending on whether they promote understanding or conflict.

Question 23

Define attributional styles

Answer 23

Attributional styles refer to how individuals explain their partner’s behavior in relationships. Relationship-enhancing attributions involve interpreting a partner’s positive actions as intentional and stable, while viewing negative behaviors as situational and temporary. Conversely, distress-maintaining attributions involve seeing a partner’s positive actions as situational and their negative behaviors as intentional and stable. These attributional patterns impact relationship satisfaction and longevity.

Question 24

explain Gottman’s Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse

Answer 24

Gottman’s (1994) theory of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse describes four communication patterns that predict relationship dissatisfaction and divorce: criticism, contempt, defensiveness, and stonewalling. Criticism involves attacking a partner’s character rather than addressing specific behaviors. Contempt is expressed through disrespect and superiority, making it the strongest predictor of divorce. Defensiveness occurs when individuals respond to criticism by shifting blame rather than taking responsibility. Finally, stonewalling involves withdrawing from a conversation, signaling disengagement and emotional distance.

Question 25

Discuss limitations to research on communication in relationships

Answer 25

-relies on self-report surveys (susceptible to bias, I.e. social desirability and retrospective distortion) -The bidirectional nature of communication (for example, in Bradbury & Ficham, it is unclear whether attributional styles cause relationship satisfaction or if satisfaction influences attributional patterns.) -cultural differences in communication are often overlooked, limiting the generalizability of findings -studies also focus on heterosexual, monogamous relationships, neglecting variations in communication styles across different relationship structures.

Question 26

define retrospective distortion

Answer 26

Retrospective Distortion is the inaccuracy in recalling past events or behaviors, often affecting self-report studies

Question 27

Define change or dissolution of relationships

Answer 27

Relationship Change and Dissolution is the process by which relationships evolve over time due to internal and external factors, sometimes leading to their eventual breakdown. Changes in the quality of communication, attributional styles, and relational dynamics can affect relationship longevity.

Question 28

Limitations to studies on the dissolution of relationships

Answer 28

Many studies are correlational in nature and cannot establish causality. (Relationships are complex, and their breakdown is rarely due to a single factor. ) -Many theories are reductionist,( focusing on specific cognitive or behavioral factors without considering the broader social and emotional context.) -Research often relies on Western samples, limiting its generalizability to diverse cultural contexts. -the influence of the peak-end rule, (people’s memories of relationships are disproportionately influenced by their most intense and final experiences.) which could bias retrospective data collection.

Question 29

To what extent - biological approach

Answer 29

To a certain extent, the biological approach offers valuable insight into the physiological and evolutionary factors that influence relationships, particularly regarding attraction and mate selection. -supports the idea that biology plays a significant role in determining whom individuals are attracted to. -fails to provide a comprehensive explanation of relationship formation and maintenance. -Many other factors, including cognitive processes, social influences, and emotional bonds, play a significant role in relationship dynamics. - does not account for the diversity of human experiences across cultures and individual differences, -Other approaches, such as cognitive and sociocultural perspectives, are needed to provide a more holistic understanding of relationship dynamics.

Question 30

Define Halo effect

Answer 30

Halo Effect is a cognitive bias where an overall impression of a person influences judgments about their specific traits. For example, people tend to assume that physically attractive individuals are also kind, intelligent, or socially skilled.

Question 31

Limitations to the cognitive approach in personal relationships

Answer 31

-Difficult to isolate cognitive factors – relationships are also influenced by biological, emotional, and social factors. Operationalization issues – concepts like attachment and self-esteem are subjective and hard to measure. Ecological validity concerns – lab experiments may not reflect real-world relationship dynamics. Memory bias – reliance on retrospective data (past memories) can lead to inaccuracies. Cultural bias – many studies focus on Western, middle-class participants, limiting generalizability

Question 32

Define mere exposure effect

Answer 32

mere exposure effect is the idea that repeated exposure to a person increases our liking for them, even if no direct interaction occurs.

Question 33

Define proximity effect

Answer 33

The tendency to form relationships with those who are physically close to us due to convenience, increased interaction, and familiarity.

Question 34

Define evolutionary perspective on mate selection

Answer 34

Evolutionary Perspective on Mate Selection is the idea that mate selection is influenced by evolutionary pressures, with men and women prioritizing different traits based on reproductive success.

Question 35

no

Question 36

Limitations of the socio cultural approach to personal relationships

Answer 36

-Ignores Individual Differences – Not everyone conforms to cultural norms or evolutionary preferences. Underestimates Emotional & Cognitive Factors – Attraction is influenced by emotions and personal perceptions, not just social and evolutionary factors. Challenges to Evolutionary Theory – Social changes (e.g., increasing gender equality) challenge traditional evolutionary explanations for mate selection.

Question 37

evaluation of Wedekind et al

Answer 37

-provides strong biological evidence for mate selection based on genetic compatibility ecological validity is limited, as scent-based attraction in a controlled lab setting may not fully reflect real-world relationship formation. attraction involves multiple factors beyond scent, such as personality and social compatibility. sample size was relatively small and primarily included Western participants, limiting generalizability. The study assumes a strictly heterosexual model of attraction, which may not apply universally. the study's findings have been replicated, lending support to its reliability.

Question 38

Aim of Hazan & Shaver

Answer 38

The aim of Hazan and Shaver's study was to investigate the relationship between early attachment styles and later relationship patterns in adulthood.

Question 39

Hazan & Shaver procedure

Answer 39

To investigate this, Hazan and Shaver created a "love quiz" which was published in a local newspaper. The quiz had two main components: the first asked participants to choose which of three brief descriptions best matched their feelings and behaviors in romantic relationships, each representing one of the attachment styles. The second part included questions about the participants' past relationship experiences, including their early relationships with parents. The researchers analyzed the responses that were fully completed and clearly matched to one of the attachment types.

Question 40

Hazan & Shaver findings

Answer 40

The results showed that more than half of participants were classified as securely attached, meaning they were comfortable with intimacy and trusting of their partners. About 25% were avoidant, tending to fear closeness and struggle with trust, while the rest were ambivalent (or anxious-resistant), often experiencing emotional highs and lows and fearing abandonment. The study also found a strong correlation between childhood experiences and adult attachment styles, suggesting that early bonds with caregivers could shape later romantic behavior.

Question 41

Bradbury & Ficham aim

Answer 41

Bradbury and Fincham aimed to explore how attributions affect marital satisfaction

Question 42

Bradbury & Ficham procedure

Answer 42

Bradbury & Ficham conducted a meta analysis that involved married couples who were asked to report on incidents from their relationships, both positive and negative. They were then asked to attribute causes to these behaviors. The couples also filled out questionnaires assessing the quality of their relationship, with measures of satisfaction, communication, and emotional support. s. Demographic information such as length of marriage, age, and gender was also collected to explore whether these factors played a role in attribution patterns.

Question 43

Bradbury & Ficham findings

Answer 43

Bradbury and Fincham found that couples who attributed positive behaviors to internal, stable causes (e.g., "My partner is loving because they are a caring person") and negative behaviors to external, unstable causes (e.g., "My partner acted that way because of stress at work") had higher relationship satisfaction. Conversely, couples who made negative attributions for positive behaviors and positive attributions for negative behaviors were more likely to experience relationship dissatisfaction.

Question 44

Evaluation of bradbury & Ficham

Answer 44

One strength of the study is that it directly examines how attributions affect real-world relationships, enhancing ecological validity. However, the study relies on self-reported data, which could be influenced by social desirability or inaccuracies in recalling specific incidents. The study also only examines couples in a particular cultural context, which may limit the generalizability of the findings.

Question 45

Gottman procedure

Answer 45

Gottman observed couples in his "love lab," where couples engaged in discussions about a conflict in their relationship while being videotaped. Physiological responses (e.g., heart rate) were also monitored. The couples were then followed over the years to track the stability of their relationships.

Question 46

Gottman aim

Answer 46

Gottman (1994) conducted longitudinal research on married couples to assess the impact of these communication patterns.

Question 47

Gottman findings

Answer 47

Gottman’s research revealed that certain communication patterns were strong predictors of relationship dissolution. , couples who frequently engaged in criticism, contempt, defensiveness, and stonewalling were significantly more likely to divorce. Contempt was found to be the most damaging behavior. On the other hand, couples who managed conflict with humor, showed appreciation, and used emotional regulation techniques were more likely to stay together.

Question 48

Evaluation of Gottman

Answer 48

Gottman’s work is highly influential in relationship psychology, particularly because of its use of real-time observation and physiological data, making it more objective than self-report methods. However, it has been critiqued for its lab-based setting, which may influence how couples behave—though Gottman attempted to replicate naturalistic conditions as closely as possible. Additionally, the focus on observable behaviors might overlook deeper psychological or contextual factors affecting relationships.

Question 49

zhou et al (2014) aim

Question 50

Zhou et al procedure

Answer 50

Zhou et al. conducted an experiment with participants divided into four groups: heterosexual males, heterosexual females, homosexual males, and lesbian or bisexual females. All participants were healthy non-smokers. Over the course of three consecutive days, each participant completed a point-light walker (PLW) task, in which they viewed a moving figure made up of dots representing human motion and were asked to judge the figure’s gender. While performing the task, they were exposed to one of three scents: androstadienone mixed with cloves, estratetraenol mixed with cloves, or a control scent of cloves alone. Each participant was exposed to only one scent per day, and the order of scent exposure was counterbalanced across participants to control for order effects.

Question 51

Zhou et al findings

Answer 51

Zhou et al. found that exposure to the male pheromone AND increased the likelihood that heterosexual women and homosexual men would perceive ambiguous walking figures as masculine, while EST biased heterosexual men to perceive the figures as more feminine. This pattern aligns with the participants’ sexual orientation and suggests that pheromones like AND and EST may subtly influence perceptions of potential romantic or sexual partners. These biological cues could therefore play a role in the initial stages of attraction, supporting the idea that subconscious, chemical signals contribute to how we form personal relationships.

Question 52

Zhou et al evaluation

Answer 52

The study's experimental design allowed for a cause-and-effect relationship to be established between exposure to AND/EST and gender perception. The use of counterbalancing effectively controlled for order effects such as practice or fatigue. The dose of AND and EST used in the study was significantly higher than what is typically secreted by the human body, raising concerns about ecological validity, as real-world exposure to these substances might not produce the same effects.

Question 53

Dion et al aim

Answer 53

Dion et al aimed to investigate whether people attribute more positive personality traits and better life outcomes to individuals who are physically attractive.

Question 54

Dion et al procedure

Answer 54

Participants were shown photographs of individuals who were previously rated as physically attractive, average, or unattractive. Each participant was asked to evaluate the person in the photo on a range of traits, including intelligence, kindness, success, and overall happiness. Demographic data such as age and gender of participants were recorded, though the study primarily focused on general trends in perception rather than individual differences.

Question 55

Dion et al findings

Answer 55

Dion et al. found that individuals who were rated as physically attractive were also perceived to possess more positive personality traits, greater success in life, and higher likability compared to unattractive individuals. This shows how physical appearance strongly shapes first impressions, and may influence who people choose to pursue romantic relationships with. The findings suggest that attractiveness plays a key role in interpersonal attraction and that it can bias people’s judgments in the early stages of forming personal connections or dating preferences.

Question 56

Dion et al evaluation

Answer 56

This study was foundational in demonstrating the halo effect and how physical attractiveness can bias social perception. However, the reliance on photographs limits the ecological validity, as real-life impressions are based on more than appearance. Cultural standards of beauty may also vary, so the results might not apply universally. yet, the findings have broad implications for understanding social bias and have been replicated across different settings.

Question 57

Moreland & Beach aim

Answer 57

Moreland and Beach aimed to test the mere exposure effect in a classroom setting

Question 58

Moreland & Beach procedure

Answer 58

Four women of similar appearance were each assigned to attend a college lecture class a different number of times: 0, 5, 10, or 15 times throughout the semester. They sat quietly in the classroom without interacting with students. At the end of the term, students were shown photos of the women and asked to rate them on attractiveness, friendliness, and intelligence. Demographic data such as gender and age of respondents were collected to see if the effect varied across subgroups.

Question 59

Moreland & Beach findings

Answer 59

Participants rated the women who attended class more frequently as more attractive and likable, despite never having interacted with them. This supports the mere exposure effect. The findings highlight how simply being repeatedly exposed to someone can increase affection or romantic interest, which can help explain how friendships or romantic relationships can form naturally over time in shared environments like school, work, or social settings.

Question 60

Moreland & Beach evaluation

Answer 60

It has good ecological validity since it was conducted in a natural classroom setting. However, it still lacks real interaction, which limits how much we can say about deeper social preferences or relationships. Also, cultural and individual differences in perception of attractiveness may not have been fully controlled.

Question 61

Buss (1989) aim

Answer 61

Buss aimed to investigate whether evolutionary factors influence mate preferences across cultures,

Question 62

Buss procedure

Answer 62

Buss conducted a large cross-cultural survey involving participants from over 30 cultures around the world. Participants completed a questionnaire where they rated the importance of various characteristics in a mate, such as physical attractiveness, financial prospects, chastity, ambition, kindness, and age. Demographic factors, including sex, age, nationality, and religion, were all recorded and analyzed.

Question 63

Buss findings

Answer 63

The study found consistent sex differences across cultures. Women generally rated financial prospects and ambition as more important than men did, while men valued physical attractiveness and youth more than women did. These findings were interpreted as evidence of evolutionary pressures: women may prioritize resources and stability for child-rearing, while men may prioritize fertility indicators.

Question 64

Buss evaluation

Answer 64

Buss’s study offered large-scale, cross-cultural support for sex differences in mate selection. Its strengths include a massive and diverse sample, which boosts generalizability. However, the study has been criticized for possible cultural bias, as the concepts of attractiveness and gender roles can differ across societies. Also, relying on self-report surveys can introduce social desirability bias, especially regarding sensitive topics like financial expectations or sexual behavior.

Question 65

Define Estratraetnol

Answer 65

A potential human pheromones found in female bodily fluids

Question 66

Define Androstadienone

Answer 66

A potential human pheromone found in male sweat and semen