Peer review- RESEARCH METHODS Flashcards
1
Q
Peer review process
A
- Happens BEFORE publication in a journal
- Researcher submits paper to journal
- If the paper meets the journal’s aims and scope it is sent to external reviewers
- The reviewer is a researcher deemed an exspert in the particular field that the paper is on
- The reviewers do not know who ahs written the paper and likewise the author does not know who the review is (double- blind)- maximises objectivity
2
Q
The reviewers read the draft carefully- and what do they comment on?
A
- Appropriateness of the method used (to test aim)
- Ethical issues
- Sources of bias
- Operationalisation and control of key variables
- Reliability, validity and interpretation of findings
- Appropriateness of conclusions (conclusions = valid)
- The reviewer decides whether or not the research is worthy of publication in the journal
- The reviewers have a crucial role as controllers of the quality of published research that enters the public domain
- They consider validity, significance and originality
- A weak research design is unlikely to be published (rejected)
- Poor reporting may mean that minor or major changes have to be made by the researcher
3
Q
Publication of the research findings
A
- The research is now in the public domain
- Other researchers can attempt to replicate the findings with different samples etc
- Other research based on the findings can further the field
- Applications/ interventions may be based on the findings
- Other researchers can write into the journal to comment on the article and the original author may respond
4
Q
Why is peer review important for the scientific process?
A
- Researchers cannot spot every mistake in their own work- can’t trust there will be error- free work
- Increases probability that errors will be detected
- Prevent the dissemination of irrelevant findings, unsupported claims, unacceptable interpretations, personal views and deliberate fraud
5
Q
Main feature of science- What is objectivity?
A
- Not biased by personal opinions or viewpoints
- Not affected by the explanations of the researcher
- Systematic collection of measurable data
6
Q
Example of where Objectivity has been used?
A
- Loftus and Palmer- when they changed verbs
How did they achieve objectivity?: - Random allocation to conditions
- Filler activiies- didn’t know what the critical question was- reduces demand characteristics- more objective
- Control of varables- I.V- change of verbs, D.V- estimates of speed in data- quantitative data- less likely to be subjective
7
Q
How is objectivity achieved?
A
- Experiments- control of variables, random allocation of participants, observations, inter- rater reliability, double- blind study- another researcher collects data
- In psychology the “gold standard” of maximising objectivity is through carrying out carefully controlled lab experiments
8
Q
Threats of objectivity?
A
- Researcher bias (e.g Mead- collected data to support her own theory
- Participant bias- social desirability bias- change answers
- Demand characteristics
9
Q
Why is objectivity important in psychology?
A
- Increases validity and replicability
- Can identify cause and effect
10
Q
Main feature of science- What does replicability refer to?
A
- Can another observer gain the same outcome?
- What factors increase replicability?
11
Q
Why is replicability important?
A
- Guards against scientific fraud
- Allows scientists to check whether the results were a one- off due to the particular way that the study was carried out
- Can be used to assess reliability
12
Q
Why is replicability important in psychology?
A
- Make sure other people can get the same results
13
Q
How is replication achieved in psychology in
1. Experiments
2. Observations
A
- Experiments:
- Control- participant variables (random allocation), situational variables
- Careful methodology- objective measurements
- Write a detailed procedure- so that someone can carry out your study - Observations:
- Behavioural categories
- Time/ Event sampling
- Training observers
- Covert observation- minimises demand characteristics
14
Q
Replication is only possible if full and precise details of research are published. What should this include?
A
- Exactly what they did
- The number of participants, their key characteristics and how they were selected
- Where the study was carried out
- What raw data was collected and how they were analysed
15
Q
Main features of science- theory construction. What are scientific theories?
A
- Scientific theories are formulated in attempt to explain behaviour that has been repeatedly observed
- They must then be subject to rigorous testing to see whether the gathered evidence supports or challenges the theory
- Theories need to be tested to add to our body of scientific knowledge
16
Q
Why is theory construction important in psychology?
A
- Scientific progress is made when clear and explicitly formulated theories are developed and systematically tested
- If research evidence does not support an exisiting theory that it was designed to test, that theory must be modified or rejected
- Allows testable predictions to be formulated
17
Q
Steps for a Deductive Approach
A
- A social phenomenon is observed (observe something in the real world)
- A theory is developed to explain why it occured
- The theory is tested through research and the theory is either accepted, rejected, or revised
Come up with theory first - then collect data
18
Q
Steps for an Inductive Approach
A
- A social phenomenon is observed
- Data is collected on the possible reasons why it occurs and trends in the data are examined
- A theory is developed from the data to explain the social phenomenon
Start testing then theory comes at the end
19
Q
Features of science- hypothesis testing
A
- Hypothesis- is a precise, testable statement of the expected outcomes of a study
- Psychological theories are tested by generating testable hypotheses and investigating whether the evidence supports them
20
Q
What happens if the evidence does not support the theory?
A
- May need to be refined or abandoned
- Specific hypothesis test elements of the theory
- We persist with the theory that provides the best explanation of the available data
- (one- tailed hypotheses are appropriate if previous research suggests the direction of your results)
- Statistical testing allows the researcher to determine whether a particular result is due to chance variation of manipulation of the I.V
21
Q
Falsification
A
- Best way to prove a theory is correct is to see evidence of disproof
- E.g we see seek to disprove the null hypothesis in order to accept the alternative hypothesis
22
Q
Why is hypothesis testing in psychology important?
A
- Allows predictions based on theories to be tested
- When experimental data confirm predicitons (hypotheses), researchers can be more confident that the theory is valid
- Theories can be refined or rejected
- Confidence level of p < 0.01, likelihood of a type 1 error is reducted (accepting the alternative hypothesis when it is not true
23
Q
Features of science- What are empirical methods?
A
- Empirical methods are the use of observations and measurement
- Methods that rely on direct sensory experience- the careful observation and measurement of variables
- Only variables that are publicly observabale and can be agreed upon by others can be validated as knowledge
- All scientific knowledge must be based on evidence collected through direct observation, experience or measurement, rather than on intuition, personal opinions or beliefs
24
Q
Example of where empirical methods have been used?
A
- Lab experiments
- Observations
- Questionnaires
- Interviews
25
Q
Why is the use of empirical methods important in psychology?
A
- Allows for objectve research methods
- Allows for theory testing
- Advance in scientific knowledge
- Allows for replication
- Claims/ predicitions can be tested
26
Q
Paradigms
A
- What distinguished a science is a set of shared assumptions and agreed methods
- Kuhn believed that psychology’s lack of an accepted paradigm and conflicting approaches means it is yet to achieve the status of mornal science and is therefore a “pre-science”
27
Q
Paradigm shift
A
- Kuhn proposed that there are two main phases in science
- One is called “normal” science where one theory remains dominant despite occasional challenges from disconfirming studies
- Graudally the disconfirming evidence accumulates until the theory can no longer me maintained and then it is overthrown
- This the second phase- a paradigm shift -> follow what’s acceptable in society
- Therefore scientific progress is related to social factors (e.g what people are saying, what society will accept)
28
Q
Paradigm shifts in psychology
A
- Freud- focus on unconscious
- Shift to learning theory- collecting empirical data
- Shift to cognitive approach- tries to model thoughts
- Shift to biological approach- cognitive neuroscience- mapping onto the brain
29
Q
What are 3 ways to check if a distribution is normal?
A
- Examine visually (see if most centred around the mean).
- Calculate the measures of central tendency (calculate the mean, median and mode- see if they are similar)
- Plot the frequency of the distribution
30
Q
Characteristics of a normal distribution
A
- The left and right sides of the distribution are mirror images.
- Bell-shaped curve: Most values cluster around the mean, tapering off equally on both sides.
- Mean = Median = Mode: All three measures of central tendency are the same and located at the center.
- The ends of the curve approach, but never touch, the horizontal axis.
31
Q
LEARN POSITIVE SKEW
A
- The tail is on the right, it’s a positive skew
- Mode is high
- Median higher than mode
- Mean is the highest
- Mean susceptible to outliers
32
Q
LEARN NEGATIVE SKEW
A
- Mode is the highest
- Median is the lowest
- Mean is the lowest- pulled mean down
33
Q
Characteristics of a skewed distribution
A
- The distribution is not evenly balanced on both sides.
- Tail direction indicates skew:
- Positively skewed: Tail extends to the right (higher values).
- Negatively skewed: Tail extends to the left (lower values). - Mean ≠ Median ≠ Mode: The mean is pulled in the direction of the skew, while the mode remains at the peak.
- Most values are concentrated on one end of the scale.
34
Q
Implications of psychological research for the economy
A
Psychological research supports the economy by reducing healthcare costs, boosting workplace productivity, and improving education outcomes.
