Issues and Debates Flashcards
Gender bias
Results when one gender is treated less favourable than the other, often referred to as sexism and has consequences like:
- Scientifically misleading
- Upholding stereotypical
assumptions
- Validating sex discrimination
Alpha bias + Example of Alpha Bias
- Exaggerating the differences between men and women
EXAMPLE - Aggression- Shackleford study- Supports the concept of male sexual jealousy as an evolutionary drive- justifies aggression to females
Androcentrism + Example of Androcentrism
- Taking male thinking/ behaviour as normal, regarding female thinking/ behaviour as deviant, inferior, abnormal when it is different
EXAMPLE: - Freud’s psychosexual theory- focuses on male development and views female development as a deviation from the male norm.
(Male behaviour superior to female behaviour)
Beta Bias + Example of Beta Bias
- Exaggerating the similarity between men and women
EXAMPLE: - Research on fight or flight response- Focused mainly on males (both animals and humans), assuming everyone reacts the same way to stress, which ignores that females often have a “tend and befriend” response.
AO3 Institutional sexism in psychology
Institutional sexism in psychology:
- Positions of power taken by males
AO3:
- Men predominate at senior researcher level
- Bowlby- monotropic theory- females won’t earn money/ no jobs
- Women and men might respond differently to research situation (often use male stimuli) -> Asch’s line study- “maths” appeals more to males and + males more likely to conform
- Publishing bias towards positive results (that finds a difference between males and females-> are exaggerated. Problem- gender differences
AO3- How can the effects of gender bias be minimised in psychological bias?
- Use male and female participants. Looking into supporting women- not labelling women (e.g post- natal depression)- rather than labelling + medicalising them = support them
- More female researchers in top positions
- Carry out study just on female psychology
Cultural bias
- When your own culture influences how you understand and judge other cultures
Ethnocentrism + Example of Ethnocentrism
- Belief that the ethnic group with which the individual identifies is superior to other groups. (Compare other cultures to your own-> your culture = superior
- Assumption other cultures are deviant/ abnormal
EXAMPLE: - Ainsworth Strange Situation- only reflected norms/ values in Western Culture -> cultural difference
- Problem- it is scientifically wrong- lead to discrimination
Ethnocentrism can lead to imposed etics- What is imposed etics?
- Where a construct from one culture is applied inappropriately to another
- E.g strange situation- studied behaviour in America + assumed their ideal attachment type could be applied universally
Cultural Relativism + Example of Culture Relativism
- View that behaviour cannot be judged properly unless it is viewed in the context of the culture from which it originates.
-
Understanding behaviours vary in different cultures
EXAMPLE: - Cultural differences in food preferences- some cultures prefer “sweeter” foods- shaped by culture
- Aggression- can change in different cultures
AO3- What are the implications (of ethnocentrism + cultural relativism)?
- Assumption other cultures are deviant
- Black- Americans more likely to be diagnosed with schizophrenia- misunderstanding of cultural difference can have serious consequences
AO3 Consequences of Cultural bias
- E.g the use of IQ testing by the US army (bias towards people in America) before WWI -> based on performance in test they would be assigned a role in the army
- European immigrants results were BELOW Americans (more likely to survive), and African- Americans had the LOWEST mental age (worst position in army- more likely to die)
- This data led to enduring stereotypes towards certain ethnic groups- lead to long- term prejudice- e.g of ethnocentrism- supporting discrimination
AO3- Avoiding cultural bias
- Emic approach- assumes cultures will be DIFFERENT- looking for cultural differences
- Using a range of cultures
- America + UK have funding to carry out research but other cultures don’t- want indigenous researchers
Free Will + Examples of Free will
- Suggests that we all have a choice and can control and choose our own behaviour.
- This approach is all about personal responsibility and plays a central role in humanistic psychology
EXAMPLE: - Choosing role model in SLT
- Jahoda’s idea of self- actualisation-> hierarchy of needs- choose how to be a better person once lower needs are fulfilled
AO3- Strengths of free will
- Emphasises the importance of the individual and studying individual differences
- It fits society’s view of personal responsibility- intuitive appeal- (think we have free will)- fits with society’s expectations
- Allows us to take responsibility for our actions-> free will protects us against learned helplessnesss
AO3- Weakness of free will
- Free will is subjective-> it’s an illusion- we are controlled by biology, conditioning, cultural restrictions
- It is impossible to scientifically test the concept of free will
Determinism
- Concept that all human behaviour results from either internal (biology, cognitions) or external (economy, role model) causes that are not under our conscious control or free will
Environmental determinism + Example of environmental determinism
- Idea that our behaviour is CAUSED by some sort of outside influence (e.g environment)
EXAMPLE: - Attached via classical conditioning- no choice who you become attached to- person who feeds you
Biological determinism + Example of biological determinism
Our biological systems, such as genes, hormones govern our behaviour
EXAMPLE:
- Genetic explanation for aggression-More likely to be similar to birth parents than adopted parents
Psychic determinism + Example of psychic determinism
- Freud believed childhood experiences and unconscious motivations and drives govern behaviour
EXAMPLE: - Electra complex- gender identify/identity with mother in hope of attracting father
Hard determinism + Example of Hard determinism
- Sees free will as an illusion and believes that every event and action has a cause
EXAMPLE: - Evolutionary theory of aggression- men will be sexually jealous- lead to aggression- no choice
Soft Determinism + Example of soft determinism
- Represents a middle ground, people do have a choice, but that choice ISN’T constrained by external factors
EXAMPLE: - CBT- therapy can change cognitions
AO3- Strength of determinism
- Determinism is scientific and allows (us to see) cause and effect -> Testable- adds to credibility of psychology as a science
- It gives valid explanations for behaviour backed up by evidence
AO3- Weakness of determinism
- Hard determinism suggests criminals cannot be held accountable for their actions- doesn’t fit in with society’s viewpoint
Scientific emphasis on causal explanations
- Psychology aims to discover the causes of thoughts, feelings and behaviours, by controlling variables in order to try and determine cause and effect, and to make predictions
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In psychology, we use well controlled lab experiments, where we manipulate the IV to see an effect on the DV- all extraneous variables are controlled.
How do we find cause and effect?: - Experimentation- controlling variables to identify cause and effect
Weakness of causal explanations
Weakness:
- Humans- more complex and have free will
- Can’t always identify cause and effect
Nature debate + Example of nature debate
- View that all our behaviour is INHERITED via our genes
- Nature aspect is rooted in nativist theory that knowledge/abilities are INNATE
- Any behaviour has evolved because of it’s survival value
EXAMPLE:
- MAOA-L gene- has an evolutionary benefit- therefore can inherit genes for aggression
- Bowlby suggested that attachment behaviours are displayed because they ensure that survival of an infant and the perpetuation of the parents’ genes. This survival value is increased because attatchment has IMPLICATIONS for later relationships.
AO3- Strengths of Nature debate
- Objective measures as evidence- can identify cause and effect-> raises profile for psychology as a science
- Scientific- can do gene analysis/ concordance rate studies
- Ethical- doesn’t blame people for conditions- e.g- obesity- in your genes- people can feel better about themselves- lower self- efficacy
- Applications- weight- loss drugs, MAOA-L gene- eat food high in protein
AO3- Weakness of Nature debate
- Reductionist- simplifies complex behaviour- e.g thrifty gene- live in a freely fair environment where food is always available
- Deterministic- external locus of control- e.g can’t change obesity if it’s in our future
Nurture debate + Example of Nurture debate
- View that all behaviour is learned and influenced by external factors- e.g environment
- Born as black slates on which experiences are written
EXAMPLE:
- Behaviourist approach- Pavlov’s dogs- they learned to associate the sound of a bell with food, that’s a learned behaviour, not something they were born knowing- which assumes that all behaviour is learned through the environment
- SLT- Bobo doll study- what we learn is through observation and vicarious reinforcement
AO3- Strengths of Nurture debate
- Change behaviour by changing the environment- e.g phobia- through the use of systematic desensitisation and flooding
- Testable- e.g Skinner boxes- scientific- adds to credibility of psychology as a science
- Encourages social change- e.g improving environmental conditions and education in poorer areas
AO3- Weakness of Nature debate
- Environmental reductionist- some phobias have a biological predisposition
AO3- Nature and Nurture debate cannot be separated
- Interactionist approach- both contribute to our behaviour. Diathesis (Gene)- stress (Environment) Gene triggered by environment
- Epigenetics- refers to material in each cell of your body that switches genes on or off
- E.g malnutrition in childhood may lead to a small body size, which is then passed on to offspring, idea genes can be switched on and off by the environment, passed on to future generations- impossible to separate nature and nurture debate
………………………………………………………… - Studies in rats recently demonstrated that exposure to THC during adolescence can prime future offspring to display signs of predisposition to heroin addiction -> Switched on addiction gene- passed onto next generation of rats, more likely to be addicted to drugs
………………………………………………………… - Life experiences shape biology, for example Maguire’s study on London taxi drivers- hippocampus became enlarged- using spatial memory- the truth is that behaviour is the result of a complex interaction between both
Holism + Example of Holism
- Argues that a behaviour cannot be understood in terms of the components that make it up
- Psychologists study the whole person to gain an understanding of all the factors that might influence behaviour
EXAMPLE:
- Humanistic approach- only under a person if we consider a person as a whole
AO3- Strengths of Holism
- Looks at everything that may impact on behaviour
- Integrates different components of behaviour in order to understand the person as a whole- gets valid understanding of a person
- Better way of understanding and treating mental illness- e.g client- centred therapy-> focuses on person as a whole, rather than applying pre- existing knowledge
AO3- Weaknesses of Holism
- Over complicates behaviours which may have simpler explanations
- Does not lend itself to the scientific method and empirical testing- less scientific
- Almost impossible to study all the factors that influence complex behaviours- more susceptible to bias
Reductionism
- Takes a complex behaviour and reduces it to a simpler behaviour/ explanation
Biological reductionism + example
- All behaviour is reduced to simple biological functions
EXAMPLE: - E.g if in an obesogenic environment + inherit obese gene- you will be obese
Environmental reductionism + example
- Behaviourism sees behaviour in terms of simple stimulus/response relationships
EXAMPLE: - Learning theory of phobias- can’t explain most common phobias- have an evolutionary advantage
AO3- Strengths of Reductionism
- Looks in detail at individual components which affect behaviour
- By breaking things down they can be tested scientifically + has scientific credibility- adds to credibility of psychology as a science
AO3- Weakness of Reductionism
- Can be over simplistic- less valid
- Does not take into account other factors- not looking at all explanations
- Difficult to understand- lacks understanding of why people act the way they’re acting
AO1- What is Levels of explanation
- Levels of explanation are used to explain the reductionism- holism continuum in explanations given in psychology
- At the lowest level are the most reductionist explanations- neurochemical explanations for human behaviour e.g neurotransmitters -> serotonin helps with mood, dopamine with feeling good
- Next level up is biological structures such as the brain
- Followed by the mid levels- psychological explanations
- Socio-cultural explanations are the highest level and take a holistic approach
AO2- Levels of explanation with the example of Anorexia
Socio- Cultural level:
- Society- the media- promotes ‘thin idea’
- Cultural- AN is more common in cultures exposed to Western media
Psychological level:
- Cognitive- cognitive distortions: ‘I ate a chip I must be fat’, irrational thoguhts- self- worth based on weight. Perfectionism
- SLT- role models- seeing big sister rewarded for dieeting- expect the same reward
- Family Systems Theory- enmeshed families
Biological structures:
- Lateral hypothalamus- ‘on switch’ not being activated
Neuro-chemical:
- Serotonin- 1D receptor
- Dopamine receptor system
AO3- Levels of explanation
Socio-cultural:
- The most holistic level- takes an idiographic approach
- Research methods- case studies, diaries etc- rich data but subjective
- Less scientific- difficult to test
Psychological:
- Treatments are more tailored to the individual e.g CBT identifies and challenges irrational thoughts
- Takes subjective viewpoints into account, taking a more idiographic approach
- More subjective- requires opinions and interpretation- brings in error
Biological:
- Can identify cause and effect- e.g. concordance rate studies. Animal studies etc. Brain scans
- Occam’s razor- objective
- Can make predictions/generalisations- nomothetic approach
- Credibility of psychology as a science
- Can create treatments such as medication
- Biologically reductionist- doesn’t take learning experiences/environment into account
Idiographic approach + Example of Idiographic approach
- Looks at how our behaviours are different to each other
- Focuses on individuals and explains behaviour of individual people, not interesting in generalisations
- Tends to use qualitative methods
EXAMPLE:
- Humanistic approach- unconditional positive regard- in- depth conversations with clients in therapy- rejects nomothetic approach- only understands individual
AO3 of Idiographic approach
STRENGTH:
- Can tailor treatments to individual cases- e.g client- centred therapy- focuses on reducing congruence
WEAKNESS:
- Can’t be generalised to other people - only focuses on the individual differences- e.g Little Hans- was a unique case- Freud attempted to generalise, not trying to generalise and not attempting to make predictions about others, like humanistic approach
- Time- consuming- collects minimal data- dangers of attrition
- Subjective data- experimenter + participant bias
Nomothetic approach + Example of Nomothetic approach
- Looks at how our behaviours are similar to each other as human beings
- Gather large amounts of data + samples- then create theories and make predictions about how people will behave
EXAMPLE:
- Milgram used a nomothetic approach to create general conclusions about human behaviour: that situational factors are responsible for both obedience and conformity.
AO3 of Nomothetic approach
STRENGTH:
- Quantitative data- easier to analyse, draw conclusions from + identify patterns
- More objective- carry out lab experiments- more controlled- adds to credibility of psychology as a science
WEAKNESS:
- Low ecological validity- e.g Loftus + Palmer- reactions not same as if it was a real car crash
- Lack detail- use qualitative data- harder to analyse
Millon & Davis- taking a combined approach
- Suggest research should start with a nomothetic approach and once general “laws” have been established, research can then move to a more idiographic approach
Socially sensitive research
- Where the topic area and/or group studied can have implications for society/certain groups in society leading to prejudice and discrimination potentialy leading to a change in, or justification for, the way these groups are treated/ perceive
- Sometimes a group is disadvantaged by the research
What were the 4 groups outlined by Sieber and Stanley that may be affected by psychological research
- Members of the social group being studied- such as racial or ethnic group
- Friends and relatives of those taking part in the study- particularly in case studies, where individuals may become famous or infamous
- The research team- researchers being intimidated because of the line of research they are in
- The institution in which the research is conducted
EXAMPLE:
- E.g Zimbardo- didn’t protect anonymity of participants, didn’t protect them ot just of psychological harm but also didn’t protect institution- reputation of Stanford Uni at risk
Advise of Sieber and Stanley
- Researchers should not avoid researching socially sensitive issues- results are important
- They need to take more care over consent, debriefing-> participants need to know the potential finds of the study
- They should make explicit the assumptions but protecting the groups involved
- They should make the limitations of their research explicity
- They could be careful how they communicate their findings with the media- ensuring they are republishing it the correct way
What has been done to improve socially sensitive research?
- Submit research proposals to ethics committees and abide by an recommendations
- Weight up costs and benefits when conducting any research
- Present findings in a value- free way
- Take steps to avoid prejudicial media representation
