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Psychology > Approaches in Psychology > Flashcards

Approaches in Psychology Flashcards

1
Q

Wundt

A
  • Studied the mind in a scientific way by breaking down behaviours into their basic elements, known as structuralism
  • Wundt only studied those aspects of human behaviour that could be strictly controlled under controlled experimental conditions
  • Wundt known as ‘the father of psychology’ – moved from philosophical roots to controlled research.
  • Set up the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879
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2
Q

What was the first assumption of Wundt’s new approach to psychology?

A

All behaviour is seen as being caused

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3
Q

What was the second assumption of Wundt’s new approach to psychology?

A

If behaviour is determined then we can predict how humans would behave in different conditions

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4
Q

What did Wundt used introspection for?

A

To investigate the human mind

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5
Q

How did Wundt establish psychology as a science?

A

By using the scientific method

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6
Q

Introspection

A
  • Participants were asked to reflect on their own cognitive processes
  • Wundt believed that with sufficient training, mental processes such as perception and memory could be observed systematically
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7
Q

Evaluation of Introspection- non- observable (1)

WEAKNESS

A
  • Relies on non- observable responses
  • E.g we are not always consciously aware of our attitudes
  • Can’t tell us everything about conscious processes
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8
Q

Evaluation of Introspection-Subjective (2)

WEAKNESS

A
  • Produced data that was subjective
  • E.g experimental results are NOT reliably reproduced by other researchers
  • Showing it is unreliable
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9
Q

Evaluation of Introspection- Generalised (3)

STRENGTH

A
  • Can be generalised to all human beings
  • E.g behaviourists such as Pavlov were achieving reliabily reproducible results
  • Showing classical and operant conditioning
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10
Q

Key assumptions of the Psychodynamic approach

A
  1. Unconscious processes, of which we are unaware, determine or drive our behaviour
  2. Personality has 3 parts: the id, ego and superego
  3. Early childhood experiences also determine adult personality
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11
Q

Key assumptions of the Psychodynamic approach (2)

A

The importance of the unconscious mind
- According to the psychodynamic theory, we have an ‘unconscious’ mind which influences our behaviour
- Our conscious mind is unaware of what thoughts and emotions occur in the unconscious
- These unconscious thoughts and feelings can have an effect on our conscious mind
- Most of our everyday actions are not controlled consciously but are the product of the unconscious mind

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12
Q

The conscious, preconscious and unconscious

A
  1. The conscious- the small amount of mental activity (e.g thoughts and perceptions)
  2. The preconscious- Things we could be aware of if we wanted or tried (e.g memories, may become aware of during dreams or slips of the tongue)
  3. The unconscious- Things we are unaware of and can not become aware of (e.g instincts, deeply buried memories, biological drives)
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13
Q

Accessing the unconscious mind

A

There are ways of accessing the unconscious mind despite being unaware of what happens:
1. Dream analysis- repressed ideas in the unconscious are more likely to appear in dreams than when we are awake. Freud referred to these ideas as the latent content of dreams
- Therapist interprets the dreams in order to provide insight about what the dream really represents- through the unconscious

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14
Q

Free association

A
  • Individual is encouraged to relax and say anything that comes into their mind, no matter how absurd
  • Hypnosis- gets you into a very relaxed stage: Stage 1 of sleep but can still respond- unconscious can reveal itself
  • Once verbalised, the therapist can interpret and explain
  • Slips of the tongue or Freudian slips can reveal what’s in our unconscious
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15
Q

Freud described personality as tripartite composed of three parts:

A
  • Behaviour is seen to be the result of a compromise between the three parts of the psyche (personality)- Id, ego, superego
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16
Q

The Id (4 points)

Devil

A
  • “Selfish beast” part of the personality
  • It is contained in the unconscious part of the mind
  • Operates according to the “pleasure principle” and demands immediate gratification
  • Develops from birth
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17
Q

The Superego (6 points)

Angel

A
  • Is the conscience and ego ideal
  • It continues to insist that we do the right thing
  • Opposes the idea of the id
  • Enforces moral restrictions and battles against id impulses
  • Causes feelings of guilt
  • Develops later in childhood through identification with one or other parent, at which point the child internalises the moral rules and social norms of society
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18
Q

The ego (4 points)

A
  • Executive of the personality
  • Uses its cognitive abilities to manage and control the id and balance its desires against the restrictions of reality and the superego
  • Operates according to the “reality principle”- balances 2 demands
  • Defends itself from id- superego struggles via various defence mechanisms
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19
Q

The balance between the id and the superego

A
  • Ego needs to balance the demands of the id and the superego- if it fails it may result in conflicts and psychological disorders
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20
Q

Defence mechanisms

A
  • Ego uses many defence mechanisms to protect it from id- superego conflicts or anxiety
  • They work unconsciously and distort reality so that anxiety is reduced
  • 3 types: repression, denial, displacement
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21
Q

Repression

A
  • Forcing a distressing memory from the conscious mind
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22
Q

Denial

A
  • Refusing to believe something because it is too painful to acknowledge the truth
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23
Q

Displacement

A
  • Transferring feelings from true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute/ safer target
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24
Q

Evaluation of defence mechanisms

A

STRENGTH:
- Has intuitive appeal
- Appeal to us
- We have experience
- Most people can appreciate the idea of denial, repression, displacement

WEAKNESS:
- Cannot be falsified
- Can’t prove/ can’t see things in unconscious

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25
Q

Key assumptions of the psychodynamic development approach

/ Psychosexual development

A
  • Psychodynamic theory states that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives, shaping our personality
  • Events that occur in childhood can remain in the unconscious, and cause problems as adults
  • Freud proposed that all children go through the 5 stages of development
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26
Q

Psychosexual development

A
  • Children pass through a series of age- dependent stages during development
  • Each stage has a designate “pleasure zone”- particularly sensitive area of the body
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27
Q

Psychosexual stages

A
  • Oral
  • Anal
  • Phallic
  • Latency
  • Genital
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28
Q

Psychosexual stages- description and consequence of unresolved conflict- ORAL

A
  • 0-1 years
  • Focus of pleasure is the mouth, mother’s breast can be the object of desire
  • Oral fixation- smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, critical
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29
Q

Psychosexual stages- description and consequence of unresolved conflict- ANAL

A
  • 1-3 years
  • Focus of pleasure is the anus, child gains pleasure from witholding and expelling faeces
  • Anal retentive- perfectionist, obsessive, Anal expulsive- thoughtless, messy
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30
Q

Psychosexual stages- description and consequence of unresolved conflict- PHALLIC

A
  • 3-6 years
  • Focus of pleasure is the genital area
  • Phallic personality- narcissistic, reckless
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31
Q

Psychosexual stages- description and consequence of unresolved conflict- LATENCY

A
  • Earlier conflicts are repressed
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32
Q

Psychosexual stages- description and consequence of unresolved conflict- GENITAL

A
  • Sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
  • Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
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33
Q

Freud’s case study and Oedipus complex

A
  • In the phallic stage, Freud claimed that little boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and a murderous hatred for their father (Oedipus complex)
  • Fearing that their father will castrate them, boys repress their feelings for their mother and identify with their father, taking on his gender role and moral views
  • Freud also suggested that girls of the same age experience penis envy: they desire their father- as the penis the primary love object- and hate their mother (Electra complex)
  • Although Freud was less clear on the process in girls, they are thought to give up the desire for their father and replace this with a desire for a baby (identifying with their mother in the process)- phallic fixation
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34
Q

Evaluation of psychosexual stages

A
  • Weakness- Focuses on male development
  • E.g gender bias
  • Only explain half human race
  • Weakness- Not based on empirical data
  • E.g it’s not data that we can see + measure- buried in unconscious
  • is unscientific
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35
Q

Therapy- psychoanalysis

A
  • Therapy benefits through release of pent- up tensions (aggression, anxiety), “catharsis”- something is a release- STRENGTH
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36
Q

Evaluation of Psychodynamic approach

A
  • STRENGTH: Holistic- trauma in childhood. Takes into account biology and learning
  • STRENGTH: Has real- world application- psychoanalysis- release of pent- up tensions
  • WEAKNESS: Deterministic- adult behaviour is caused by things that happened in childhood- no free will- psychic determinism
  • WEAKNESS: Case studies are subjective and open to bias. E.g Freud used Little Hans to support the Oedipus complex- showing it is unscientific
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37
Q

***

Little Hans- Supporting study- psychodynamic approach and Oedipus complex

A
  • Freud supported his concept of the Oedipus complex with his case study of Little Hans
  • Hans was a 5 year old boy who developed a **phobia of horses after seeing one collapse in the street **
  • Freud suggested that Hans phobia was a form of displacement in which his repressed fear of his father was transferred onto horses
  • Horses were merely a symbolic representation of Hans real world unconscious fear- the fear of castration experienced during the Oedipus complex

Horse represented Hans father, father assured him he wasn’t going to castrate him

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38
Q

Humanistic approach

A
  • Humanism was intended to offer a less deterministic approach
  • Theories are concerned with human experiences, freedom and choice
  • Human- centered
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39
Q

Free Will

A
  • Human beings are self- determining and have free will
  • This does not mean that people are not affected by external or internal influences but we are active agents who have the ability to determine our own development
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40
Q

Abraham Maslow

A
  • Believed humans are motivated by needs beyond those of basic biological survival
  • Fundamental to human nature is the desire to grow and develop to achieve our potential- “self- acutalisation”
  • Maslow’s hierachy of needs ranges from basic needs to higher level psychological and actualisation needs
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41
Q

Motivation- Maslow’s hierachy

Starts at the bottom- have things at bottom before having the top things

A
  1. Self- actualisation- morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts- Humans are driven to self- actualisation
  2. Esteem- Self- esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others, respect by others. (*1st 2 are more advanced levels- not everyone is at this level)
  3. Love/ Belonging- Friendship, family, sexual intimacy- Only seek a relationship if safety and physiological are fulfilled
  4. Safety- Security of body, of employment, of resources, of morality, of family, of health, of property- Meaning somewhere to live, don’t feel threatened, healthy
  5. Physiological- Breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis (Keeping body at healthy functioning level), exctretion- Basic needs, primary physiological drive- if these are fulfilled we move up to next level
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42
Q

Carl Rogers

A
  • Points out that individuals strive to achieve their ideal selves because they are motivated towards self- improvement
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43
Q

Focus on the self

A
  1. Self- image- How we see ourselves which includes a mixture of physical characteristics, personality traits, social roles
  2. Self esteem- How much you value yourself- how we compare ourselves to others. (If the person you want to be in 6 months is different to the person you are now- bad self- image)
  3. Ideal self- How you wish/ hope you could be- the way we see ourselves and how we would like to see ourselves do not quite match up

Congruence- whether person you are now is the same person you want to be
Incongruence- whether person you are now is different to the person you want to be

44
Q

Conditions of worth

A
  • Humans have a basic need to feel nurtured and valued by significant people in their lives, e.g parents
  • If this is given freely, without conditions (unconditional positive regard), then people develop a healthy sense of self- worth, recognising their abilities and difficulties
  • Children who receive negative regard, e.g criticism and blame, or who are set conditions of worth develop low self- esteem
45
Q

***

A sense of well- being

A
  • A healthy sense of wellbeing is established if an individual maintains a reasonable consistency between ideal self and actual behaviour- congruence
  • If ideal self and actual self is congruent = HIGH self- esteem
  • If actual self and ideal self is incongruent = LOW self- esteem
46
Q

The influence on counselling psychology

A
  • To reduce the gap between self- concept and the ideal self- Rogers developed Client- Centered therapy
  • An effective therapist is able to provide clients with the unconditional positive regard they had failed to receive as children
  • Study the individual case- IDIOGRAPHIC Approach
  • Average performance of groups -NOMOTHETIC approach
47
Q

Strength of Humanistic Approach

A
  • STRENGTH: Holistic- looking at individual
  • STRENGTH: Not deterministic- emphasises free will and choices. E.g human beings are self- determining and have free will
  • STRENGTH: Has real- world application- client- centered therapy- dissolves conditions of worth
  • WEAKNESS: Unscientific- not trying to make generalised principles
48
Q

???

Limitations of Humanistic Approach

A
  • Use of qualitative techniques has been questioned- reject experimental methods because they do not believe we can create generalised principles about humans- UNSCIENTIFIC
  • Little empirical research has been carried out- not measurable and unachievable
  • Not all cultures share the assumption that individual achievement brings fulfilment- working for good of group- self- actualisation isn’t worthy in collectivist cultures.
49
Q

Learning Theory/ Behaviourism

A
  • Has a scientific approach as it is based on observation and measurement within a laboratory
  • Normal and abnormal behaviour is learnt- either Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning
  • Approach is all behaviour is learnt. We are all born as blank slates. Not interested in cognitions or emotions because they cannot be seen. Mainly study animals because think learning is the same in all species- generalise animals to humans
50
Q

Classical Conditioning in Pavlov’s Dogs

A
  1. UCS (food) = UCR (salivation)
  2. UCS (food) + NS (bell) = UCR (salivation)
  3. CS (bell) = CR (salivation)
51
Q

Classical Conditioning in Little Albert

A
  1. UCS (noise) = UCR (fear)
  2. UCS (noise) + NS (rat) = UCR (fear)
  3. CS (rat) = CR (fear)
52
Q

Positive reinforcement

A
  • Encourages behaviour to be repeated, by using rewards
53
Q

Negative reinforcement

A
  • Behaviour is repeated because it removes something unpleasant
54
Q

Skinner box

A

Skinner designed an experiment to demonstrate the principles of operant conditioning (either a rat or pigeon was placed in the box)

55
Q

How does the Skinner box demonstrate operant conditioning?

A
  • We can show the rat presses the lever to get a food reward
  • It will also press the lever to avoid a shock which is negative reinforcement
56
Q

Schedules of reinforcement- Skinner

A
  • Skinner experimented by using different ratio schedules e.g 1:5 a food pellet was dispensed every 5th lever press
  • He discovered that unpredictable reinforcement was more successful for conditioning behaviour than continuous reinforcement
57
Q

Strength of Behaviourism - Scientific Approach (1)

A
  • Has a Scientific approach
  • E.g Skinner was able to clearly demonstrate how reinforcement influenced an animal’s behaviour
  • This shows that behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility and raises profile of psychology as a science
58
Q

Strength of Behaviourism - Real- World Application (2)

A
  • Can be applied to real- world problems and behaviours
  • E.g Treating phobias via systematic desensitisation and flooding
  • Increases value of behaviourist approach because it has widespread application
59
Q

Weakness of Behaviourism - Reductionist (1)

A
  • It is a reductionist
  • E.g we can learn phobias which ignore the influence of biology on behaviour
  • Learning is more complex than observable behaviour alone
60
Q

Weakness of Behaviourism - Can’t be generalised (2)

A
  • Can’t be generalised
  • E.g experiments done on animals can’t extrapolate specifically from animals to humans
  • Due to humans have high- order thinking + emotions
61
Q

Social Learning Theory

A

Individuals observe role models and the consequences of their actions. If the consequences are positive they imitate the behaviour

62
Q

Modelling

A
  • From observer’s perspective, modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model
  • From role model’s perspective, modelling is the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer
63
Q

Imitating

A

Copying the behaviour of others

64
Q

Identification

A
  • When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model
  • Only going to imitate role model if we are similar, like + admire the role model- raise your self- efficacy (confidence)
65
Q

Vicarious reinforcement

A
  • Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour

E.g A student who takes their time writing in nice penmanship because they observed other students being praised for their neat writing.

66
Q

Mediational processes

A
  • Cognitive factors (i.e thinking) that influence learning and come between stimulus and response
  1. Attention- extent to which we notice certain behaviours (noticeable)
  2. Retention- how well the behaviour is remembered
  3. Motor reproduction- ability of observer to perform the behaviour
  4. Motivation- will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished

These happen in between observation + imitation

67
Q

Bandura study- Social Learning Theory is supported by Bandura

A
  • Bandura showed videos to children where an adult behaved aggressively towards a Bobo Doll.
  • 1st group of children saw the adult being praised for behaviour
  • 2nd group saw adult being punished for their aggression
  • 3rd group (control) saw aggression without consequence
    When given own Bobo doll to play with:
  • 1st group showed must more aggression
  • Then 3rd group
  • And then 2nd group

All learnt aggression ONLY imitated aggression if they experienced a reaward

68
Q

Strength of Social Learning Theory - Real- World Application (1)

A
  • Can be applied to real- world behaviours + problems
  • E.g children learn from others and this explains how cultural norms are transmitted through societies
  • Increases the value of the approach as it can explain real- world behaviour/ problem
69
Q

Strength of Social Learning Theory - Reciprocal determinism (2)

A
  • Reciprocal determinism
  • E.g of soft determinism
  • Allows you to choose your role model- some allowance for free will
70
Q

Strength of Social Learning Theory - Scientific (3)

A
  • Is scientific
  • Bobo doll study was done in a controlled lab
71
Q

Weakness of Social Learning Theory - Lab Studies (1)

A
  • Evidence was gathered in lab studies
  • E.g in a lab, children were aggressive to the Bobo doll because they thought that behaviour was expected
  • Research tells us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life- suggesting there is low ecological validity
72
Q

Weakness of Social Learning Theory - Not Scientific (2)

A
  • SLT is not scientific
  • E.g as we can not see the cognitive/ mediational processes
  • Doesn’t tell us about imitation and SLT in the real world
73
Q

Cognitive approach

A

Suggests that all behaviour is preceded by a thought and that thought processes can and should be studied scientifically

74
Q

Computer models/ analogies

A

Have been criticised for machine reductionism, which means that they reduce complex thought processes down to simple mechanical processes

75
Q

Strength of Computer analogies - working? (1)

A
  • Can help us to identify when CPU isn’t working
76
Q

Weakness of Computer analogies - machine reductionism (1)

A
  • Machine reductionism
  • Overly reductionist
  • Brains are not computers
77
Q

Theoretical models

A

Models are simplified representations based on current research evidence. These models are often changed, updated and refined

78
Q

Strength of Theoretical models - scans… (1)

A
  • Beginning to find areas of brain that match with models- now evidence- scans
79
Q

Weakness of Theoretical models - Unscientific (2)

A
  • Unscientific- can’t see models in the model
80
Q

Inferences

A

Cognitive psychologists have to infer conclusions about how mental processes work based on observable behaviour

81
Q

Strength of Inferences - Data… (1)

A
  • Have data to back it up
82
Q

Weakness of Inferences - Unscientific (2)

A
  • Unscientific- guesses- can’t see working of minds
83
Q

Schema Theory

A
  • States that all knowledge is organised into units
  • Schema is a generalised description or a conceptual system for understanding knowledge- how knowledge is represented and how it is used
84
Q

Strength of Schema theory - Useful (1)

A
  • Useful to us as they allow us to take shortcuts when interpreting the huge amount of information that we have to deal with on a daily basis
85
Q

Weakness of Schema theory - exclude info (2)

A
  • Schemas cause us to exclude any information that does not conform to our established ideas about the world (can lead to stereotyping)
86
Q

Strength of Cognitive Approach - Scientific methods (1)

A
  • Uses objective, scientific methods
  • E.g cognitive psychologists employ highly controlled methods of study so researchers are able to infer cognitive processes at work
  • Study of mind has a credible scientific basis

E.G- USE LOFTUS + PALMER- VIDEO THEY WATCHED OF CRASH- CHANGED VERB

87
Q

Strength of Cognitive approach- Practical application (2)

A
  • Has practical application
  • E.g has been applied to treatment of depression (CBT) + improved the reliability of eyewitness testimony
  • Supports value of cognitive approach
88
Q

EDIT

Weakness of Cognitive approach- Interactionist (1)

A
  • Thoughts are biological (mind as CPU) but are shaped by upbringing etc
89
Q

Weakness of Cognitive approach- machine reductionism (2)

A
  • Based on machine reductionism
  • E.g machine reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion which may affect our ability to process information
  • Machine reductionism may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach
90
Q

Cognitive Neuroscience

A
  • We can now see what areas of the brain are involved in specific cognitive functions
  • These techniques allow us to accurately map the function of the brain
  • Allows us to study healthy brains
91
Q

fMRI

A

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging- measures oxygenated blood

92
Q

Applications of cognitive neuroscience

A
  • Analyse the brain wave patterns of eyewitnesses to determine whether they are lying in court
  • Helps us to understand the disfunction if someone damages their brain- knows where the problems will be
  • Find out treatment for OCD- what parts of the brain that are affected
93
Q

Strength of Cognitive Neuroscience- Real- world applications (1)

A
  • Has real- world applications
  • E.g Cognitive Neuroscience can be used in the treatment of OCD to find out what parts of the brain are affected
  • Supports value of Cognitive Neuroscience
94
Q

Strength of Cognitive Neuroscience- Scientific (2)

A
  • Uses scientific methods
  • E.g the data collection is objective
  • Increases it reliability
95
Q

Weakness of Cognitive Neuroscience- machine reductionism (1)

A
  • Based on machine reductionism
  • E.g humans are complex and unpredictable and cannot be alikened to an inanimate object
  • Machine reductionism may weaken the validity of cognitive neuroscience
96
Q

Weakness of Cognitive Neuroscience- reliability (2)

A
  • Technologies used in cognitive neuroscience are not 100% reliabile
  • E.g MRI scans are not always reliable due to user- error- e.g in temperature
97
Q

Biological approach

A
  • Focuses on biological explanations of human behaviour
98
Q

Genetic inheritance

A
  • We have 50% of our mother’s genes and 50% of our father’s genes
  • This may explain why we may share both physical and psychological characteristics with our parents
  • MZ twins share 100% of each other’s genes
  • DZ twins only share 50% of each other’s genes
  • If MZ concordance rate is higher that DZ twins suggets its genetic and environment must have influence if MZ twins are not 100%
99
Q

Genotype

A
  • Genetic code written into the DNA of individual cells
100
Q

Phenotype

A
  • Physical appearance of that in the individual
101
Q

Nervous system has 2 major systems:

A
  • Central Nervous System- Brain and spinal cord
  • Peripheral Nervous System- somatic and autonomic nervous systems
102
Q

Nervous system

A
  • Sends messages from one part of our bodies to another using nerve cell, known as neurons.
  • These transmit impluses in the form of electrical signals
103
Q

Strength of Biological Approach- Scientific methods (1)

A
  • Uses scientific methods
  • E.g to investigate the biological and genetic basis of behaviour (the biologcal approach uses highly objective methods)
  • Most of the biological approach is based on objective and reliable data which raises profile of psychology as a science
104
Q

Strength of Biological Approach- Practical applications (2)

A
  • Real- world application
  • E.g the biological approach has promoted the treatment of clincial depression using anti- depressant drugs
  • People with depression may be able to manage their condition
105
Q

Weakness of Biological Approach- Determinism (1)

A
  • It is determinist
  • E.g it sees human behaviour as governed by internal, genetic causes we have no control
  • Biological view is too simplistic and ignores the effect of environment
106
Q

Weakness of Biological Approach- Issues with evolutionary theory (2)

A
  • Not possible to falsify theory of natural selection
  • E.g we cannot show evolution happening, can only deduce it has taken place
  • Due to fossil record- evidence of evolution, no fossil record in psychological evidence- lacks evidence, theory without evidence- unscientific

Psychology (12 decks)

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