Peer Relationships Flashcards
1
Q
What is the self concept?
A
- an organized set of beliefs about oneself, including personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values and roles
2
Q
When does self concept emerge?
A
- 18 months
- children pass the rouge test
- children also start using “me” pronoun and calling themselves by name
3
Q
How does the self concept develop?
A
- children’s self concept develops primarily by internalizing others’ perceptions of them
- direct vs indirect perceptions
4
Q
What are direct perceptions?
A
- caregiver describes a child a certain way and the child incorporates that description into their self concept
5
Q
What are indirect perceptions?
A
- how children are treated
6
Q
What is the first characteristic present in children’s self concept?
A
- gender
- it is central to their sense of self
7
Q
When do children form basic gender identity?
A
- 2.5-3 years
8
Q
What is gender socialization?
A
- process through which children learn about the social expectations, attitudes and behaviours associated with girls and boys by internalizing the messages received about gender from caregivers and wider society
- starts early; parents of newborns describe boys and girls differently
9
Q
What are the baby X studies?
A
- studies in which researchers label the same infant as a boy or girl and then observe how adults interact with the infant
- infants labelled as boys rated as bigger, stronger, louder, and more likely to be encouraged to be active
- infants labelled as girls received more talk and nurturance
- suggests that caregivers’ perceptions of differences between male and female babies are due to their own associations with gender, rather than actual gender differences
10
Q
How does gender shape parents’ expectations about motor skills?
A
- parents of girls tended to underestimate their infant’s crawling ability but parents of boys more accurately estimated their ability
- when tested on their actual skills, boys and girls did not differ on the slopes they could safely crawl down
- suggests that gender differences in motor skills only exist in parent’s perception
11
Q
What are the gender differences in toys?
A
- girls toys are more pink and sedentary
- boys toys are more active and there’s no pink
- boys have more toy trucks and girls have 5 times more pink toys by 12 months
12
Q
What are gender differences in play?
A
- parents present boys with more physical challenges than girls
- more likely to offer girls more help
13
Q
What are gender differences in language?
A
- parents are more likely to use emotion words with girls than boys in early childhood
- emotion understanding thus develops earlier in girls
14
Q
What are gender differences in the division of household chores?
A
- homes in which parents take on more traditional gender roles in completing chores are communicating gender roles
15
Q
What are gender differences in media exposure?
A
- more tv viewing by preschoolers associated with them more likely saying that people see boys as better than girls
16
Q
What is self socialization?
A
- once a child identifies with a gender, they actively seek out gender related information and conform their behaviour to this info
- highlights children’s own role in their gender development
17
Q
When do children have rigid, gender stereotyped behaviours?
A
- 3-5 years
18
Q
What are rigid, gender stereotyped behaviours?
A
- preference for toys and clothes that are consistent with gender identity
- preference for same gender playmates
- cross cultural
- due to lack of gender constancy
19
Q
What is gender constancy?
A
- understanding that gender remains the same regardless of superficial changes to appearance or behaviour
20
Q
When does rigid, gendered behaviour relax?
A
- 6 years
- because gender constancy is achieved
- accept more non-gendered appearance and toy preferences in themselves and others
- but, as children get older, they acquire more complex ideas and expectations about gender that include traits, roles, abilities, etc
- incorporates these into their self concepts and adjust their behaviour accordingly
21
Q
What are the implications of gender identity?
A
- gender is a central characteristic that organizes children’s self concepts
- adherence to gender stereotypes can unnecessarily limit children’s development in educational aspirations, social development, and emotional expression
- extent to which a child behaves in gender-consistent ways is associated with level of peer acceptance
- even though children increase their gender flexibility with age, they tend to reject peers who do not behave in typically gendered ways
- greater engagement with peers of same gender is powerful way that gender stereotypes and identities are reinforced
22
Q
What is gender neutral parenting?
A
- conscious parenting practice to encourage children to explore and express themselves in a way that is not defined by traditional gender roles
- common in WEIRD countries
- not enforcing gender specific colours, avoiding gender specific language, encouraging all activities
23
Q
What is sex?
A
- assigned at birth usually based on external genitalia
24
Q
Who are cisgender children?
A
- children who identify with their assigned sex
25
Q
Who are transgender children?
A
- children who don’t identify with their assigned sex
- tend to show strong identification and preferences aligned with current gender in a way that is very similar to cisgender children
- research suggest that transgender identity is not a result of parent socialization and instead seems to be internally driven
26
Q
When is gender central to self concept?
A
- 3-6 years
27
Q
What is self concept like in early childhood?
A
- 3-6 years
- gender is central to self concept
- concrete, observable characteristics that tend to focus on physical attributes and physical activities
- unrealistically positive and confident
28
Q
What is self concept like in middle childhood?
A
- 7-12 years
- describe self using personality traits and inner qualities
- self concept is more balanced and accurate
- includes weakness, but overall positive
29
Q
What are changes in self concept from early childhood to middle childhood due to?
A
- increased cognitive ability to think about multiple qualities simultaneously
- greater engagement in social comparison and more strongly influenced by the opinions of others
30
Q
What is self concept like in adolescence?
A
- 13-18 years
- can think of themselves in increasingly abstract ways
- more intense concerns about social acceptance which heavily influences self concept
- egocentrism; assume their thoughts and feelings are more unique than they really are (younger)
- imaginary audience
- aware of differences in behaviour in different social settings leading to confusion and many questions about identity
31
Q
When is forming an identity important?
A
- forming an identity is the primary psychosocial task of adolescence/early adulthood
32
Q
How is identity formed?
A
- exploration
- commitment
33
Q
What is exploration?
A
- questioning of parental and societal values and experimenting with various facets of identity
- including appearance, hobbies, traits, friends, courses…
- viewed as important and healthy for identity development
34
Q
What is commitment?
A
- consolidation and acceptance of who one is as indicated by the choices one makes
- deciding on a major, friend group, clothing style
35
Q
What are Marcia’s identity statuses?
A
- identity diffusion
- moratorium
- foreclosure
- identity achievement
36
Q
What is the typical trajectory of Marcia’s identity statuses?
A
diffusion –> moratorium/foreclosure –> achievement
37
Q
What is identity diffusion?
A
- lack of exploration of options and no commitments made
- due to lack of interest in own identity or indecision
- common in children
- if persists into late adolescence/adulthood, associated with feeling disconnected, being easily influenced by others, and little sense of purpose
38
Q
What is moratorium?
A
- active exploration of various roles but no commitments yet
- brought about by awareness of multiple selves and exposure to different identity options
- feelings of confusion and anxiety are normal at this status
- important phase for identity achievement
39
Q
What is foreclosure?
A
- commitment to a life path without having explored alternatives
- due to parents making decisions for teen without their input or teen strongly identifies with a parent and wishes to follow in their footsteps
- more likely in teens who are obedient, have a low level of tolerance for uncertainty, and have authoritarian parents
- potential problem in choosing an identity that is not a good fit
- can lead to lower life satisfaction and a struggle to maintain the commitment
40
Q
What is identity achirvement?
A
- completed phase of exploration and commitment to an internally driven identity
- associated with most positive mental health and social outcomes
- usually achieved in early adulthood
- biggest gains in identity are in post secondary schooling due to greater exposure to different lifestyles, beliefs, and career options
41
Q
What are the criticisms of Marcia’s identity statuses?
A
- research into identity statuses conducted in WEIRD samples, typical progression and outcomes may differ in non WEIRD societies
- identity development is a continuous process, not limited to adolescence
- life event in adulthood can restart the process
42
Q
What is play?
A
- voluntary activities done for inherent enjoyment
- play looks different depending on a child’s age
43
Q
What is non-social play?
A
- play that doesn’t involve the participation of peers
44
Q
What are the types of non-social play?
A
- unoccupied play
- solitary play
- onlooker play
45
Q
What is unoccupied play?
A
- birth - 3 months
- child briefly watches things around them, but nothing holds their attention for long
46
Q
What is solitary play?
A
- 3 months - 2 years
- child is focused on their own activity and is uninterested in playing with others
47
Q
What is onlooker play?
A
- being around 2 years
- child watches other children’s play
- may ask questions, but won’t join in
48
Q
What is social play?
A
- play that involves participation of peers
49
Q
What are the types of social play?
A
- parallel play
- associative play
- cooperative play
50
Q
What is parallel play?
A
- begins between 2-3 years
- children play next to each other, possibly doing the same activity, but do not interact much
51
Q
What is associative play?
A
- begins between 3-4 years
- children play together, engaging sometimes, but having different goals
52
Q
What is cooperative play?
A
- begins 4+ years
- children play together and are working towards a common goal
53
Q
Why is play critical for learning?
A
- social-emotional development
- cognitive development
- motor development
54
Q
How does play help with social-emotional development?
A
- learn to cooperate
- develop theory of mind
55
Q
How does play help with cognitive development?
A
- practice problem solving
- learning about the world through trial and error
- develop language skills
56
Q
How does play help with motor development?
A
- unoccupied play fosters motor skills
57
Q
What is the importance of play?
A
- UN recognizes child’s right “to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the age of the child”
58
Q
What is a friend?
A
- a person that’s not a relative with whom an individual has an intimate, reciprocated, and positive relationship
59
Q
What are the most important factors in children’s friendships?
A
- similarity
- proximity
60
Q
What is similarity?
A
- age
- acceptance by peers
- personality
- level of negative emotions
- academic motivation
61
Q
What is proximity?
A
- live in same neighbourhood
- go to same school
- participate in same extracurricular activities
62
Q
How does gender affect choice of friends?
A
- more likely to be friends with kids of the same gender
- this preference emerges around 3 years
- peaks around 13 years
- at 13, time with different gender friends increases, especially for girls
63
Q
What is the developmental trajectory of friendships?
A
- 1-2 years: show preference of some children over others
- 2-3 years: developing more complex social behaviours
- 3-5 years: kids have a concept of friendship
- 6-8 years: define friendship on basis of shared activities with peers
- 9-12 years: definition of friendship expands to include trust, care, help, support
- adolescence: friendship primarily defined by self disclosure and intimacy
64
Q
What is friendship like at 1-2 years?
A
- show preference of some children over others
- touch them more often
- smile more at them
65
Q
What is friendship like at 2-3 years?
A
- developing more complex social behaviours
- imitating peers’ behaviours, cooperative problem solving, turn taking
- emergence of parallel play
66
Q
What is friendship like at 3-5 years?
A
- kids have a concept of friendship
- most kids have at least one friend
- friendship defined as playing together
- best friend = peer a child plays with most
- friends have more conflict than non friends, more likely to cooperate to resolve conflict than non friends
- emergence of preference for same gender peers
67
Q
What is friendship like at 6-8 years?
A
- define friendship on basis of shared activities with peers
68
Q
What is friendship like at 9-12 years?
A
- definition of friendship expands to include trust, care, help, and support
69
Q
What is friendship like in adolescence?
A
- friendship primarily defined by self disclosure and intimacy
- friendship takes on central importance
70
Q
What is the difference between boys and girls friendships?
A
- girls desire more closeness and dependancy in friendships but comes with more worrying and stress about friendships
- girls and boys show similar levels of conflict and stability in friendships
71
Q
What is sociometric status?
A
- degree to which children are liked vs disliked by peers
- measured by having children anonymously nominate peers in their class that they like and peers in their class they dislike
72
Q
What are the 5 status groups?
A
- popular
- rejected
- average
- neglected
- controversial
73
Q
What is the popular status?
A
- 11% of kids
- liked by many peers and disliked by few
- socially skilled
- good emotion regulation skills
- assertive, but not aggressive
- tend to have factors that give them high status (attractive, athletic, popular friends)
74
Q
What is the rejected status?
A
- 13% of kids
- liked by few peers and disliked by many
- tend to have fewer positive social skills compared to peers
- fall into one of 2 categories
75
Q
What are the categories of the rejected status?
A
- rejected-aggressive
- rejected-withdrawn
76
Q
What is the rejected-aggressive status?
A
- 40-50% of rejected kids
- tend to show high levels of hostility, threatening behaviour, physical aggression, and delinquency
77
Q
What is the rejected-withdrawn status?
A
- 10-25% of rejected kids
- trend to be socially withdrawn, timid, and socially anxious
- frequently victimized and feel lonely, isolated, depressed
78
Q
What is the controversial status?
A
- 7% of kids
- liked by many but also disliked by many
- aggressive, disruptive, and prone to anger
- compensate for this with many positive social skills like being cooperative, sociable and funny
79
Q
What is the neglected status?
A
- 9% of kids
- not liked or disliked
- neutral/not noticed
- less social and less disruptive than average children
- not at risk for negative outcomes
- simply prefer solitary activities
- can be socially skilled in more structured activities
80
Q
What is the average status?
A
- 60% of kids
- moderate number of likes and dislikes
- more social than rejected and neglected kids, but not as social as popular and controversial kids
81
Q
How stable is sociometric status?
A
- sociometric status more likely to change from year to year
- average and rejected status most stable
- popular status tends to be stable within a given school year
82
Q
What is the importance of friendship?
A
- provides social validation and support
- fosters development of positive social skills
83
Q
How does friendship provide social validation and support?
A
- especially important during transitions
- kids tend to rely more on friends than parents starting in adolescence
- chronic friendlessness is associated with increased loneliness and depression
- friendship buffers against negative experiences
84
Q
How does friendship foster development of positive social skills?
A
- builds cooperation, theory of mind, conflict resolution skills
- childhood friendships are practice for adult relationships
85
Q
What are the implications of being rejected?
A
- rejected, especially aggressive-rejected, status in childhood is associated with a variety of negative outcomes
- more aggression
- delinquency in teens
- substance abuse
- continued unhealthy relationships into adolescence and adulthood
- low self esteem
- less education and limited work success
- crime in adulthood
86
Q
What is deviancy training?
A
- negative peer pressure wherein peers model and reinforce aggression and deviance by making these behaviours seem acceptable
- kids that have aggressive/delinquent friends are more likely to also become more aggressive and delinquent themselves
- can begin as early as age 5
- similar effect with alcohol and drug use
87
Q
What is selection effect?
A
- children choose peers that are similar to them
- implies that kids choose and contribute to the wrong crowd
88
Q
How can parents shape their children’s peer relationships in a positive way?
A
- monitoring
- emotion coaching
89
Q
What is monitoring?
A
- parents decide whom children interact with and how much time they spend doing particular activities
- looks different depending on the age of the child but matters at all ages
- especially important in adolescence, who have more control over who they spend time with
90
Q
What is emotion coaching?
A
- parents teach kids how to effectively manage emotions to interact with peers and handle conflict
91
Q
What are school interventions?
A
- school interventions aim to improve children’s peer relationships by enhancing their emotional development
92
Q
What is PATHS?
A
- Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies
- aim to change how rejected children interact with peers
- kids age 4-11
- learn to identify emotional expressions
- think about the causes and consequences of different ways of expression emotions
- strategies for self regulation
93
Q
What are the outcomes for the children who participate in PATHS?
A
- improved emotion understanding and regulation
- increased social problem solving
- decreased externalizing behaviour (aggression, acting out)
- decreased depression
