Pathology Flashcards
All information that was taught to me while attending Vanier College's "Animal Health Technology" Program, located in St-Laurent Montreal.
What happens in a lesion
Abnormal structural and functional changes
How can you observe a lesion
May be observed by:Gross examinationMicroscopic examinationLaboratory methods
What are the three possible types of diagnoses
PresumptiveDefinitiveDifferential
What is a prognosis
A statement regarding the expected (estimated) outcome of the diseaseHopefully evidence-based
Why do we do necropsies
To identify the causes of the diseaseto identify cause of death
What are some causes of cell injury
HypoxiaPhysical agentsChemical agentsInfectious agents and their toxinsGenetic mutationsNutritional deficiencies and imbalancesAging
What can cause cell degeneration
Increase in water (hydropic degeneration)Increase in other substances(FatAmyloidOther)Can be seem macroscopically in microscopically
What is pyknosis
When nuclei is condensed and dense in dead cells
what is karyorrhexis
when nuclei breaks up into fragments
what is karyolysis
when the nuclei is dissolved
What are terms you use to describe necrosis of an organ or tissue
PaleSoftFriableSharply demarcated
What are the types of necrosis
coagulation necrosiscaseous necrosisliqufactivegangrenous
What species get coagulation necrosis
cows
Describe liqufactive necrosis
Mostly in central nervous systemRapid enzymatic dissolution
describe gangrenous necrosis
Typically further degraded by bacteria that liquefies (moist gangrene – typically saprophytic bacteria) or produces gas (gas gangrene – typically Clostridium).Dry gangrene – ischemia, mommification
What can cause atrophy
Deficient nutritionDecreased workloadDisuseDenervationPressureLoss of endocrine stimulation
What are types of cell adaptation
AtrophyHypertrophyHyperplasiaMetaplasia
What is metaplasia
When one cell type is replaced by another “more useful”Epithelium of trachea: cilliated squamousVitamin A deficiency in birdsCan be reversible or can progress to neoplasia
What does intracellular accumulation show
Symptom of dysfuntionNormal, in excessAbnormal (endogenous or exogenous)Pigment
What are the endogenous pigments
MelaninHemoglobin Derivatives (bilirubin, porphyrin)
what are the exogenous pigments
carbon (anthracosis)tattoossilica (silicosis)
What is inflammation
Mechanism with a protective biological purpose:To dilute, isolate and eliminate cause of injuryWell organized cascade of fluid and cellular changesCan be harmful
What are the four cardinal signs of inflammation
RednessHeatSwellingPain
Describe acute inflammation
Short duration (few hours to few days)Mostly fluid changes with neutrophilsFollowed by repair and healing
Describe chronic inflammation
Weeks to months (to years)Mostly lymphocytes and macrophagesOften fibrosis and granulation tissueCan be secondary to acute inflammation or direct (mycobacterium, foreign material)
What is serous exudates
Low in proteins, clotting factors and cellsBlisters from burns, acute allergic responses
Describe mucous exudates
Fluid containing an abundance of mucus and mucin (from a mucus membrane)Chronic allergies (chronic asthma)Autoimmune GI diseases
Describe fibrinous exudate
Fluid with high concentration of plasma proteinsBut low leukocytes
Describe purulent/suppurative exudate
High proteinsHigh WBC
Describe the systemic reaction in inflammation
- release of cytokines (pyrogens) from wbc2. hypothalamus is triggered3. causes a fever
When does an abscess occur
Occurs when acute inflammation fails to rapidly eliminate stimulus.
What is an abscess
Enzymes from neutrophils liquefy affected tissue and neutrophils pusParticularly myeloperoxidase
What species lacks myeloperoxidase
rabbits and reptiles
Describe the difference between acute and chronic inflammation
Cells as opposed to fluid
What is a particular feature of chronic inflammation
granulomas
What is equine proud flesh
hypertrophic scar
Describe equine proud flesh
Exuberant proliferation of fibroblats and collagenNot well understoodDisregulation of cytokines & Growth factors most likely
Describe IBD
Idiopathic. Classified by the region of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) affected and by the predominant inflammatory cell type. Lymphocytic-plasmacytic inflammation is most commonly found, followed by eosinophilic inflammation. IBD is believed to be immune-mediated in origin.normal intestinal mucosa serves as a barrier and controls exposure of antigens to the GI lymphoid tissue (GALT). GALT generates appropriate immune responses (tolerance of harmless antigens).IBD develops when there is a break-down in this process and inappropriate immune responses occur.
Describe the components of the heart
÷ Pericardium÷ Myocardium÷ Conduction system÷ Endocardium & Valves
Describe the components of the heart vessels
÷ Arteries (distribution) ÷ Veins (collection)÷ Capillaries÷ Lymphatic
How is fluid distribution and homeostasis maintained
Physical barriersConcentration GradientPressure Gradient
What is edema
Accumulation of excess interstitial fluid
What are the barrier problems
increased permeability
What enzymes are associated with inflammation
histamine and bradykinin
What can cause barrier problems
inflammation, damage and immune mediated
What causes edema
infectious (tick born disease, FIP, leptospirosis, etc)immune mediated diseasetoxins
What causes hydrostatic pressure problems
portal hypertensionlocalized obstructionfluid overload
What does hydrostatic pressure mean
increased pressure
what causes oncotic pressure problems
decreased albumin (production or losses)
What are common fluid distribution problems
Barrier ProblemsPressure ProblemsDecreased lymphatic drainage
Where can edema be located
¡ Alveolar lumen¡ Thoracic cavity¡ Pericardial sac¡ Abdominal cavity ¡ Subcutaneous
Describe the appearance of edema and the histological appearance
Clear to slightly yellowtransuadate (low protein and low cells)
Describe physical disruption that cause hemorrhage
traumaerosionneoplastic invasionfungi
What minor defects that could cause hemorrhage
endotoxemia/infectious agentstoxinsimmune-complexes
What can cause hemorrhage
Physical disruptionminor defectsthrombocytopeniacoagulation factor deficiency
What is thrombosis
Formation of inappropriate clot of fibrin and/or platelets along with other blood elements on the wall of a blood vessel / lymphatic / heart.
What is a thrombosis called when it occurs in the lumen
thromboembolism
What can cause endothelial injury/vasculitis
¡ Infectious (ex herpes virus, salmonella, aspergillus)¡ Immune-mediated ¡ Toxins
What can cause an alteration in blood flow
¡ Mechanical÷ (GDV, external compression) ¡ Cardiac disease¡ Hypovolemia
What can cause hypercoagulability
¡ Inflammation¡ Diabete¡ Renal disease¡ Neoplasia¡ Hepatic disease ¡ Cushing’s¡ Hypothyroidism ¡ Heartworm
What are the clinical signs of thromboembolism in the renal arteries
decrease in renal function, proteinuria and hematuria oranuria if bilateral
what are the clinical signs of thromboembolism in the pulmonary arteries
¡ acute respiratory compromise and a ventilation-perfusion mismatch that can be mild or subclinical depending on the degree of embolization
what are the clinical signs of thromboembolism in the mesenteric arteries
¡ gastrointestinal signs and abdominal pain
what are the clinical signs of thromboembolism in the distal limb arteries
¡ pain, hardening of the musculature (tetany), and cyanosis
What are the three types of shock
¡ Cardiogenic¡ Hypovolemic¡ Blood maldistribution(÷ Septic÷ Anaphylactic ÷ Neurogenic)
What is cariogenic shock
Failure of the heart to pump adequate amount of blood ÷ Arrhythmias÷ Cardiomyopathy÷ Pericardial tamponade÷ Anesthesia
How is cardiogenic shock characterized
Loud murmurs, tachycardia or bradycardia, arrrhythmias, and weak heart sounds
What is hypovolemic shock
¡ Reduced circulating blood volume ÷ Fluid loss: vomiting, diarrhea, burns ÷ Blood loss (>35%)
How is hypovolemic shock characterized
tachycardia, pale mucous membranes, and tachypnea
What is blood maldistribution
¡ Pooling of blood in peripheral tissues from vasodilation
what is anaphylactic shock
¡ Widespread mast cell degranulation ¡ USUALLY CAUSED BY: Vaccine, insect/plant, drugs
What is neurogenic shock
¡ Autonomic nerve discharge ¡ CAUSED BY: Electrocution, stress, fear
What is septic shock
¡ Infectious organism released inflammation mediator
What is congestive heart failure
Inability of the heart to maintain normal ¡ systemic blood pressure¡ normal cardiac output (normal tissue blood flow) ¡ normal filling pressure
Why does congestive heart failure occur
results from severe heart disease
What does right sided heart failure cause
¡ Hepatomegaly & splenomegaly ¡ Ascites
What does left sided heart failure cause
Pulmonary congestion and edema
What can cause pericardial effusion
¡ Cardiac hemangiosarcoma÷ Highly malignant ¡ Idiopathic÷ Golden Retriever ¡ Acute vs Chronic¡ Pericardiocenthesis
Describe dilated cardiomyopathy
¡ Large breed dog (e.g. Doberman, Irish Wolfhound)¡ Familial pattern¡ Etiology not well understood¡ Adult onset÷ May have murmur, arrhythmias, tachycardia¡ Taurine-deficient cats
Describe myocardium
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy¡ Main Coons¡ Etiology not completely clear¡ Young adult, middle-age cat÷ Mostly asymptomatic with murmur of gallop¡ Associated with arterial thromboembolism¡ Hyperthyroidism can cause a form of DCM (reversible)
Describe arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy of the boxer
¡ Ventricular arrhythmias, syncope, sudden death¡ Familial disease÷ Not well understood, difficult to breed out
Describe sick sinus syndrome
¡ West Highland white terrier, Miniature schnauzer, Americancocker spaniel, Boxer, Dachshund, Pug¡ Idiopathic¡ Adult onset÷ Most of these dogs show overt clinical signs (syncope, episodicweakness) at the time of diagnosis¡ Pacemaker
Describe myxomatous valvular degeneration
¡ Progressive degeneration of the atrioventricular valves¡ Older dogs¡ Small- to medium-size breeds (Papillon, Poodle, Chihuahua,Dachshund, Cavalier King Charles Spaniel)¡ Slow progression to heart failure¡ Progressive murmur
Describe patent ductus arteriosus
¡ Mostly dogs¡ Congenital, can be genetic¡ Female; pomeranian, poodle (proved heritable cause), Keeshond, Bichon frise, Chihuahua, Maltese, Shetland sheepdog¡ Continuous murmur¡ Sx or Coil
Describe valve stenosis
¡ Pulmonary valve (smaller breeds)¡ Aortic valve (larger breeds) ¡ Loud murmur¡ Not as easy to correct if severe
describe fibrocartilaginous embolism
¡ Vascular thrombosis and infarction of the spinal cord¡ Sudden onset, usually one side worst¡ Non-chondrodystrophoid¡ If deep pain sensation remains, many animals will recover useful spinal function
describe intestinal lymphangiectasia
Dilatation of lymphatic vessels and obstruction of normallymph flow.¡ Intestinal lymphatic dysfunction leads to leakage of protein- rich lymph into the intestinal lumen.÷ Common causes of protein-losing enteropathy (PLE) in dogs¡ Primary: idiopathic¡ Secondary:÷ Inflammatory disease ÷ Neoplasia÷ Heart failure
What are the signs of intestinal lymphangiectasia
÷ vomiting, diarrhea (usually small bowel), weight loss, lethargy, anorexia÷ peripheral edema, abdominal distension from ascites
How do you treat intestinal lymphangiectasia
diet change, anti-inflammatories
what is the prognosis for intestinal lymphangiectasia
prognosis is variable
What causes a rupture of the thoracic duct
¡ Cause chylothorax¡ Cytological aspect:¡ Often idiopathic (other: neoplasia, HWD, heart failure)
What is a portosystemic shunt
¡ Anomalous vessels that allow normal portal blood (from GIT) to pass directly into the systemic circulation without first passing through the liver¡ Congenital or acquired (older)¡ Failure to thrive, poor weight gain, and small body stature ÷ Seizure-like episodes after a meal¡ Some can be treated with surgery
What does carcinogenic mean
Agent that causes mutations resulting in tumor formation
What is oncology
The study of neoplasia (diagnosis, treatment)
What are the characteristics of benign neoplasm
Well differentiatedThe cells resemble closely the parent tissueLittle or no anaplasiaSlow growthNo basement membrane invasionDo not metastasizeOften encapsulated
How can a benign neoplasm cause disease
By compressing sensitive tissuesBy being metabolically activeBy malignant transformation
What are the characteristics of malignant neoplasm
Some lack of differentiationAnaplasiaRapid GrowthMany mitotic figuresAbnormal mitotic figuresLocally invasiveInfiltrative growthFrequent metastasisUsually no capsule
What are some names of epithelial tumors
AdenomaPapillomaCarcinomaAdenocarcinoma
What are some names of mesenchymal tumors
Tissue -omaTissue -sarc0ma
How does a tumor metastasise
Invasion of host tissueDissemination through vascular systemImplantation on new surfaces
What are some diagnostic methods for neoplasm
radiologycomputed tomographyultrasoundMRINuclear MedicinecytologyDNA, RNA analysis
What do you do radiography for
screening test
why do you use computed tomography
to characterize and localize lesionidentify metastasissurgery and radiotheraphy planning
Why do we use ultrasound
Abdomen: internal structure of organs and to image body cavities when effusionAssess vasculatureUltrasound-guided sampling
Why do we use nuclear medicine
administration of radioisotopes
What are the advantages to cytology
Relatively low risk of procedures to the animalLower cost compared with biopsySpeed with which results can be obtainedBest to evaluate cellular criteria (ex lymphoma)
what are the disadvantages to cytology
Small sample (may not be representative)No tissue architecture
Why do we do DNA and RNA analysis
Study mutations to help classify tumorsDiagnostic utility (lymphocytosis)Can help guide therapy
Why do we do grading
Done to predict/classify the behavior of the tumor.Different criteria depending on tumor type.Done by pathologist
Why do we do staging
Describing or classifying a cancer based on the extent of cancer in the body. Often based on the size of the tumour, presence of metastasisStages are based on specific factors for each type of cancer
What are some clinical effects of neoplasm
The pressure exerted by the neoplasm on the surrounding tissues will cause the following effects:PainVessels blockageDyspnea, hypoxiaCompromise organ function
What is cachexia
Weakness and wasting of the body due to severe chronic illnessthat cannot be reversed nutritionallyInflammatory cytokines involved
What causes anemia
Suppression of erythropoietin synthesis in kidneysHemorrhagesDecreased erythropoiesisErythrocyte fragmentation
What causes hypercalcemia
Tumor cell secretionsOsteolytic metastases of neoplasms
What are some causes of cancer
Genetic Immunosuppression Chemical carcinogens Viral carcinogens Physical carcinogens Chronic tissue injury
What are some environmental factors that cause cancer
Cigarette smokeUltraviolet irradiationUrbanizationDiet
What are the intrinsic factor that cause cancer
Oxygen free radicals that result from chronic inflammationIntrinsic errors in DNA replicationevery time a cell divides, each daughter cell is likely to carry at least a few hundred mutations in its DNA Most are silent, but accumulate
describe heritable cancer syndromes
Cancers with clear heritable basisNot many described in veterinary literature
Describe genetic Influence in Sporadic Cancers
It is Why not all smokers get lung cancer
Describe Presence of distinct heritable traits that segregate with common cancer phenotypes in dogs (animals)
Will not cause cancer directly (unlike heritable syndrome)Histiocytic sarcoma in Bernese Mountain dogs
What are the characteristics of the chemical extrinsic factors
Very wide varietyMost bind covalently to DNADirect carcinogenIndirect:Require metabolic activation
what are the characteristics of the physical extrinsic factors
Sunlightfacial, aural, and nasal planum SCC in white or partially white cats and may also play a similar role in some cutaneous SCC lesions in dogTrauma/InflammationChronic keratitisFeline vaccine associated sarcomaRadiationAt site of radiation therapySurgery/ImplantsAnecdotal reports
what are the characteristics of the hormonal extrinsic factors
Canine mammary cancermost common neoplasm of female intact dogsSimilar in cats, but not as well documentedPerianal adenomaoccurs primarily in intact male dogs, whereas perianal adenocarcinoma occurs in both intact and castrated malesResolves after castrationProstate cancerneutered dogs have been shown to be at increased risk
Describe the papilloma virus
Usually multiple lesions affecting young dogsMost regress without txt
Describe the feline leukaemia virus
Still much to discoverOnly 20% of cats persistently infected with FeLV develop lymphoid cancerTwenty years ago, 70% of lymphomas in cats were believed to be caused by FeLV
describe the FIV virus
neoplasms most commonly linked to FIV infectionLymphomas and myeloid tumors (myelogenous leukemia, myeloproliferative disease) few carcinomas and sarcomas Lentiviruses such as FIV not oncogenic in themselvesmarkedly immunosuppressiveaffect normal immunosurveillance of cancerous cells
Describe canine hemangiosarcoma
Highly malignant neoplasm that originates from vascular endotheliumAffects middle-age to older dogs, large breedPrimary tumor site:SpleenHeart (right atrium)SubcutisLiverMetastasis:lungs, liver, mesentery, and omentum (hematogenous)Direct spreadFeatures helpful for diagnosis (pertinent staging/grading, etc):Often morphologically altered RBCs are present, such as schistocytes, acanthocytes, and poikilocytesCan present as acute abdomen or cardiac tamponadeOther (complications, prognosis, etc)Highly metastaticWatch for DICIf Splenic, need to remove spleen, but prognosis still poor (better with chemo - 141–179 days)
What is the definition of canine lipoma
A benign subcutaneous mass with a soft texture usually localized.
Who does canine lipoma affect
Most commonly dogs, rare in cats and horsesBreed predispositionsHypothyroid dogs
What are the clinical signs of canine lipoma
Palpation of small, soft mass under the skinShould not cause discomfort to the patientUsually around abdominal region but can be anywhereTendency to develop multiple
How do you diagnose canine lipoma
Fine needle aspirationSurgical removal and histopathology
How do you treat canine lipoma
Surgical removal can be done but it is not necessary unless it is restricting movement
Describe basal cell tumor
Has many specific namesMid to old dog and catMostly on head and neck
Describe follicular tumor
Often inflammationOlder dogsCan sometimes squeeze out material
Describe sebaceous adenoma
Cauliflower-like tumorOlder cats & dogsideally should be removedmalignant version exists
describe soft tissue sarcoma
General name for a number of mesenchymal tumorsMuscle, adipose, neurovascular, fascial, and fibrous tissue Mostly malignant (see grade)Similar pathologic appearance and clinical behavior Solitary tumor in older dogs and catsSkin and subcutaneous sites are most common
describe the soft tissue sarcoma
Tend to appear as pseudoencapsulated soft-to-firm tumors, but have poorly defined histologic margins or infiltrate through and along fascial planes, and they are locally invasive.Local recurrence after conservative surgical excision is commonTend to metastasize hematogenously in up to 20% of cases.Regional lymph node metastasis is unusualHistopathologic grade is predictive of metastasis, and resected tumor margins predict local recurrence.Measurable or bulky (>5 cm in diameter) tumors generally have a poor response to chemotherapy and radiation therapy (RT).
describe equine malignant melanoma
80% of grey horses over the age of 15 will develop at least one melanoma tumor during their lifetimeCan be fatalThere is no available effective chemotherapy for horses.Tumor of the melanocytes, the cells that produce skin pigment.Most common location: underside of the tail, the perineal and peri-anal regions, penis and sheath in malesCan also be found: ear margins, anywhere on the head, jugular region, new or on the parotid salivary glandIt is also possible that the melanomas can spread internally, most commonly to the serosal surfaces of the liver, spleen, and lungsCan be hard or soft, and appear either solitary or in clustersStart off under the skin until they surface. They can become ulcerated and/or infected
How do melanoma’s develop
1- Melanomas develop slowly over years, and remain benign 10-20 years, without metastasis. Most common.2- Benign melanomas that exist for months or years and suddenly develop malignant characteristics and spread rapidly externally and/or internally.3- Melanomas are malignant from the start. Rare.
where can malignant melanoma metastasis to
Metastasis: lymph nodes, liver, spleen, skeletal muscle, lungs, and surrounding or within blood vessels throughout the body
Describe feline oral squamous cell carcinoma
Most common oral malignancy in the cat Can originates from the jaw bones or the tongueOwners may find a mass in their cat’s mouth which occurs mostly in the back of the mouth or under/on the tongueIt has an ability to grow invasively (locally), but does not tend to metastisizeCan be ulcerative or proliferativeNo breed/sex predisposition, usually affects middle-aged cats
what are the symptoms of the feline oral squamous cell carcinoma
mass that can be ulcerativedroolingweight loss, halitosisdifficulty eatingbloody discharge from the mouth
What are the environmental factors that contribute to oral SCC
Second Hand Smokeflea collarsDiet
How do you diagnose oral SCC
Often not diagnosed until the tumour is advancedOral examinationAn ulcerated, red, locally invasive lesion is highly suggestive of an oral tumor Loose teeth can suggest bone structure is affectedBloodwork to check overall healthRadiographsCan reveal invasion of underlying boneBiopsy of abnormal tissueUsed to confirm the presence of SCC and help stage the tumor Important to obtain a large sample since feline oral SCC are frequently infected, necrotic, or inflamed.
Describe the treatment of feline oral SCC
Surgical removal is possible but can be difficult due to the aggressiveness and invasiveness that typically involves the bone. This means part of the jaw would need to be removedRadiation therapy or chemotherapy alone is generally ineffective in the managing oral SCC. The combination of the two can improve quality of life and overall survival time. Pain medication can help reduce discomfort associated with the tumor.
Describe the prognosis of feline oral SCC
Extremely poor1 year survival rate is less than 10% even with combinations of radiation therapy and chemotherapyMost cats are euthanized withing 1-3 months because they cannot eat or drink and poor quality of life
What are the malignant oral tumors
squamous cell carcinomamelanocyte tumorfibrosarcoma
What are the benign oral tumors
epulides
How do you treat oral tumors
Surgery and RT are the most common treatments used for the local control of oral tumors.
What are the symptom of oral melanoma in dogs
HalitosisDroolingBleeding from the mouthChange in food preferenceChange in chewing habitsDecrease in appetiteChronic coughingDifficulty swallowingWeight loss
What causes canine oral melanoma
idiopathic
How do yu diagnose canine oral melanoma
Physical exam: Blood tests, UA, X-rays, abdominal ultrasound, MRI, fluid biopsyOlder dogs will have dark pigmented areas on the tongue, mouth and gums. Look for anything unusual in the mouth pigmented or non-pigmented fleshy masses. Metastasis: Head, neck, lymph nodes, liver, lungs, kidneys and sometimes bone tissue
how do you treat canine oral melanoma
Removal of tumor: Sometimes hard to completely remove because it may spread to the bone in the mouth. Can return even if completely removed. Resistant to chemo.Radiation: Remission in 70% of patients. Reoccurrence and spread still possible.New vaccine restricted availability.
what is the prognosis from canine oral melanoma
5-7 months, but; Stage 1: 1 yearStage 2: 6 monthsStage 3: 3 monthsStage 4: 1 month
describe nasopharyngeal polyps in cats
Nonneoplastic, inflammatory massesoriginating from either the middle ear or eustachian tubecan extend into the external ear canal or nasopharynxYounger catsIdiopathic
Describe the tumors of the liver
Primary tumors rarePrognosis variableMetastasis are frequentNodular hyperplasiacommon diagnosis in older dogsbenign and probably does not represent a preneoplastic lesion
describe feline intestinal lymphoma
Can present as:a purely intestinal infiltrationor a combination of intestinal, mesenteric lymph nodes and liver involvementTumors can be solitary but more commonly diffuse throughout the intestinesCommonOlder cats, mostly small intestineOften preceded by IBD
Describe perianal adenomas in animals
Benign sex-hormone dependent (spayed female, intact male)
Describe apocrine gland adenocarcinoma
Tiny primary tumor (often pea-size)About 50% metastasis at diagnosisHypercalcemia (PU/PD)
Describe canine chondrosarcoma
Chondrosarcoma is a form bone cancer in dogsThe cancer starts in the cartilage and connective tissue found in joints, and/or ribs and nose. It can cause bones to fracture easily as the tumour invades the bones. It is mostly common in older dogs
How do you treat canine chondrosarcoma
Better prognosis if caught early and treated aggressively. Amputation of the affected limb if no metastasis has occurred. Radiation therapy if located in the nose. Removal of the affected rib and portion of the lung if tumour is on rib followed by chemotherapy. Inoperable tumours are treated with radiotherapy to try to prolong the life span.Surgery is the only known affective treatment.
How do you diagnose canine chondrosarcoma
XraysCBCLymph biopsyBiopsy of tumourCT scan
describe canine osteosarcoma
Most common bone tumor found in dogs5% of all canine tumorsMalignantCan effect any breedMost common in large or giant breeds.Middle aged or elderly
What are the primary osteosarcoma tumor sites
Bordering the scapula Tarsus CarpusStifleCommonly near growth plates
Where does canine osteosarcoma metastasize to
Lungsother bones lymph nodes
What are the risk factors associated with canine osteosarcoma
Slightly more in females than malesHigher in castrated males and spayed females (compared to intact)
What are the symptoms of canine osteosarcoma
LamenessPeriosteal inflammationMicrofracturesPathologic factorsSwelling
how do you diagnose canine osteosarcoma
Orthopedic, neurologic and physical examinationX-rays (if lesion is in question – do a biopsy)Biopsy through aspirationBone scan
how do you treat canine osteosarcoma
Aggressive treatment planRadiation therapy – palliative care not curativeCurative options include a combination of surgery, radiation therapy and chemotherapyStandard treatment is amputation
what is the prognosis for osteosarcoma
Very good prognosis with amputation: resolves 100% of the pain
What is the aetiology and pathogenesis of insulinomas
Insulinomas are tumors of the pancreatic β cells (type of islet cell) which produce insulin These tumors cause increased insulin production which result in hypoglycemiaThe tumors respond to normal provocative stimuli that encourage a rise in insulin, but fail to respond to negative feedback when the insulin levels are too highInsulinomas are very common in middle-aged and older ferrets ( greater than 3 years of age)
What are the clinical signs of insulinomas
Hypoglycemia will result in neurological signs such as mental dullness, sluggishness, lethargy, ataxia, seizures and comaProlonged, severe hypoglycemia can result in cerebral hypoxia and cerebral lesionsOther possible symptoms are nausea (which can cause the ferret to paw at its mouth), depression, hypersalivation, staggering, tachycardia, hypothermia, tremors, muscle fasciculations, nervousness and irritabilityOwners may report that the ferret tends to sleep more frequently, be difficult to wake up, or stops in its tracks with a dazed appearanceIt is important to note that these symptoms can come and go as blood sugar levels rise and drop
how do you diagnose insulinomas
One of the most common illnesses diagnosed in ferretsWill be diagnosed using clinical signs, history, physical exam, blood glucose levels and insulin levels
How do you treat ferret insulinoma
Surgery to remove the tumors (the tumors often grow back so several surgeries will likely be required)Medication to manage insulin and glucagon levels (the dose will need to be increased as the illness progresses)Diet is another huge component to managing this disease. All ferrets should be fed a high-protein ferret food, but this is especially important in sick ferrets
what is the prognosis for ferret insulinomas
Most insulinomas are eventually fatalThis is either because of hypoglycemic induced complications or because the tumors have spread to other organsAll that can be done is attempt to maintain a good quality of life for the ferret for as long as possible
describe pituitary adenoma
Common pituitary neoplasia of older dogsMost common cause of cushing in horses.Pituitary tumors account for approximately 15% of intracranial tumors Frequently associated with either: -hyperadronocorticism - Diabetes Insipitus
What are the clinical signs of pituitary adenoma
Non-neurological: weight loss, PU/PD, lethargy Neurological signs: cranial compression is rare but pressure on the optic chiasma may cause ocular changes
how do you diagnose pituitary adenoma
imagining with CT or MRI may be difficult, but a definitive diagnosis is usually done with a intraoperative or postmortem biopsyDifferential diagnosis: lymphoma, hypothalamic-pituitary trauma, dorsally expanding cysts, congenital malformations, inflammatory granuloma, etc.
how do you treat pituitary adenoma
corrective hormonal therapy or hypophysectomy (removal of the pituitary gland)
what is the prognosis for pituitary adenoma
Prognosis depends upon the type and size of the tumour.The prognosis for a pituitary tumor (if the client is willing to do treatments) is usually fairly good as the treatments are quite effective.In serious unnoticed cases The entire hypothalamus may become compressed and replaced by the tumor.
How can you determine whether cushings disease is caused by the pituitary or the adrenal adenoma
If there is no change in Cortisol levels being released by the adrenal gland, then it is an Adrenal Adenoma.If there is suppression of the adrenal gland, then the Cushing’s is being caused by a Pituitary Adenoma.
Describe pheochromocytoma
Adrenal gland tumorOlder dogsSecretes catecholamines (episodic)episodic collapse, panting, anxiety, restlessness, exercise intoleranceMalignant (40% metastasize)Good prognosis is no metastasis
Describe thyroid gland adenomas in dogs
Often benign adenoma found at necropsyMalignant:If clinical signs of hyperthyroidism (most non-functional)Older dogsFrequent metastasis
Describe hyperthyroidism
Multinodular adenomatous hyperplasiaCarcinoma rare
describe insulinoma
Pancreatic Beta-Cell TumorsHallmark of insulinomanormal or elevated blood insulin concentration in the presence of low blood glucose levelsOften malignant50% metastasisMedium and large breed dogs, older
What are the clinical signs of insulinoma
weakness, ataxia, collapse, disorientation, behavioral changes, and seizures
How do you treat insulinoma
Medical and surgical treatmentprognosis for dogs with insulinomas is good in the short term but guarded to poor in the long term
What is a gastrinoma
Often pancreatic, secretes gastrinGastric acid hypersecretionMiddle-aged dogs and older catsNon-specific clinical signsvomiting and weight lossmelena, abdominal pain, anorexia, hematemesis, hematochezia, and diarrheaOften metastasis at diagnosis
What is a transitional cell carcinoma
Fairly common malignant tumorLocated in the trigone region of the bladder15% metastasis at diagnosis30% of dogs have abnormal cells in urine
What are the signs of the transitional cell carcinoma
hematuria, dysuria, pollakiurialess commonly: lameness caused by bone metastasis
What is canine lymphoma
Is a common type of cancer in dogs. Unregulated growth of malignant lymphocytes that often affects; lymph nodes, bone marrow, liver, and spleen.Can also be seen in the eyes, skin, and gastrointestinal tract.It can be small cell lymphoma; progresses very slowly and is difficult to treat. There is also large cell lymphoma; progresses quickly but responds very well to chemotherapy.
