Nursing Flashcards
All information that was taught to me while attending Vanier College's "Animal Health Technology" Program, located in St-Laurent Montreal.
What is ataxia
Uncoordinated movements
What is enophthalmia
Recessed eye
What is exophthalmia
Protruding eye
What is buphthalmos
Enlarged eye
What is strabismus
Deviation of the eye
What is microphthalmia
Small eye
What is blepharospasm
Spasm of eyelid
What is blepharitis
Swelling of eyelid
What is entropion
Inward rolling of the eyelid
What is ectropion
Outward rolling of the eyelid
What is lagophthalmos
Incomplete closure of the eyelids
What is ptosis
Drooping of the upper eyelid
What are the two types of abnormal discharge
Mucoid and purulent
What is Epiphora
Excessive tear production
What is conjunctivitis
Inflammation of the conjunctiva
What is conjunctival hyperemia
Redness of the conjunctiva due to engorged vessels
What is chemosis
Edema of the conjunctiva
What is subconjunctival hemorrhage
Hemorrhage under the conjunctiva
What is stomatitis
Inflammation of mm. In mouth
What is hyperemia
Redness
What is miosis
Constricted pupil
What is mydriasis
Enlarged pupils
What is cherry eye
Everted third eyelid gland
What is Corneal edema
Cloudy cornea
How do you diagnose a corneal ulcer
Positive fluorescein test
What is neovascularisation
Excessive in growth of blood vessels into the cornea
What is scleral hyperemia
Redness of the sclera due to engorged vessels of the sclera
What is Icteric sclera
Yellow color due to hyperbilirubinemia
What can you auscultate on the left side
PulmonaryAorticMitral
What can you auscultate on the right
Tricuspid
What is glaucoma
High inter ocular pressure
What is uveitis
Low inter ocular pressure
What does it mean if the mucous membranes are pink
The animals normal
What does it mean if the mucous membranes are pale or white
Anemia, poor perfusion, vasoconstriction
What do blue mucus membranes mean
Inadequate oxygenation
What do brick red mucus membranes mean
Increased perfusion, vasodilation
What do yellow mucus membranes mean
Bilirubin accumulation
What do brown mucus membranes mean
Methemoglobinemia
What do petechia mucus membranes mean
Coagulation disorder
How do you do a fluorescein test
1 First the eye may or may not be anesthetized with a drop of topical anesthetic (lidocaine)2 The strips are moistened with saline and the dye allowed to flow out over the cornea. 3. The eye is then gently washed with saline to remove all the excess dye
How do you do a schirmers test
Do prior to administration of topical anesthetic. A standardized paper slip is gently placed on the eye. And allowed to absorb tears for one minute, wetting values of less than 15 mm/m are abnormal
What could prolonged capillary refill time indicate
The animal circulation is compromised due to cold, shock, cardiovascular disease, anemia
What organs are located in the cranial abdomen
Stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine, two thirds of kidney, spleen
What organs are located in the mid abdomen
Small intestines, Caudal 1/3 of the kidneys, spleen, plus or minus ovaries and uterus
What organs are located in the caudal abdomen
Large intestine, colon, plus or minus uterus, bladder, prostate.
What should you be able to palpate in the abdomen
Stomach, liver, small intestine, kidney, large intestine, colon, bladder
What is wheezing
Breathing with a rasp or whistling sound. Results from construction of obstruction of the throat, pharynx, trachea or bronchi
What is dyspnea
Respiratory distress
What are the signs of respiratory distress
Posturing. Standing or sitting up with back arched, neck extended, and elbows out. Open mouth breathing
What do you call a bump in the skin
Intradermic
What do you call a lump under the skin
Subcutaneous
What is erythema
Redness/area of bruising
What are condomes
Blackheads
What are papules
Small circumscribed solid elevated lesion
What is a pustule
Small circumscribed elevated, pus containing lesion
What are squames
Scale, thin plate like structure
What is atrophia
Muscles that are wasting
How do you initiate palpebral reflex
Touch corner of eye.
How do you initiate menace reflex
Hide one eye with one hand, move your other hand close to the eye.
What is nystagmus
Involuntary movements of the eyeballs in unison
What is miosis
Excessive pupil construction
Excessive pupil dilation
What is mydriasis
What is anisocoria
Unequal size of pupils
What is Melena
Black, tarry, foul smelling stools which are digested blood
What is hematochezia
Red colored stools which is undigested blood
What are the normal temps for dogs
37.5-39.2*C
What are the normal temps for cats
38.1-39.2*C
What is the normal pulse for dogs
60-140bpm
What is the normal pulse for toy breeds
Up to 180 bpm
What is the normal pulse for puppies
Up to 220bpm
What is the normal pulse for cats
140-220bpm
What is the normal respiratory rate for dogs
10-30bpm
What is the normal respiratory rate for cats
24-43bpm
What are the 6 routes of drug administration
ParenteralOralTopicalIntranasalRectalAerosol
What does parenteral mean
Not through the alimentary canal. Aka by injection
What are the parenteral routes
InjectableIntraperitonealIntralesional Intradermal
What are the most common needle gauge sizes for injection
22,23,25g
What are the complications to injections
IrritationTissue necrosisInfection
Where can injections be given
Anywhere over the dorsal cervical, thoracic or lumbar regions.
Where is the ideal site for sub q injections
Over shoulders and neck
What is the exception to the ideal sq injection site
Vaccines, can cause sarcomas which have to be removed due to becoming cancerous
List a few drugs that can’t be given sub q
ThiopentalKetamine
If you get ️pain while injecting sub q what might be the case
You’re Intradermal
Why are solutions injected sub q absorbed more slowly than iv
It is not going straight into the bloodstream so it has to be absorbed through the smaller blood vessels
On which muscle group do you do im injections in the thigh
Semimembranous and Semitendinosis muscle
What are your im injection landmarks for the thigh
Distally: no lower than stifle
What are your landmarks proximally for the thigh
Don’t go more proximal than hip
What are your landmarks cranially for the thigh
Femur
What is the cranial epaxial muscle landmark
Last rib
What is the caudal epaxial muscle landmark
Crest of illium
What are the landmarks when injecting into the tricep muscles
Top of humerus (above elbow), go caudal to humerus
What are the landmarks when injecting in the quadriceps muscle group
Cranially to femur
What direction does venous blood flow
Toward the heart
How do you avoid phlebitis
Inflammation of vessels. Disinfect and change needle
How do you prevent vein collapse
Don’t withdraw plunger too fast
Which drugs can cause tissue necrosis if injected wrong
Thiopental KetamineDextrose
What is intraperitoneal
Into the peritoneal cavity
What is Intradermal
In the derm
What is intralesional
Into a lesion
Name a common clinician sign in cats and dogs where administering an oral drug is contraindicated.
Vomiting or severe diarrhea
What is the advantage of aerosol over traditional therapy
Less pancreatitis, diabetes, Polyuria, cystitis, innapropriate urination, behaviour changes
What are the feline core vaccines
RhinotracheitisCalici virusPanleukopenia Rabies ***
Give an example of the vaccine schedules for kittens
At 8 wk, 12wk, 16wk
Give an example of the vaccine schedule for a 16wk old cat
16wk, 20wk and then 1yr later
Why do we give boosters till 16 weeks of age
Due to the mda from the mom.
Where do you administer the fvrcp vaccine
Front Right shoulder
Where do you administer te rabies vaccine
Rhl
Where do you administer the felv vaccine
Lhl
What are the core dog vaccines
DistemperAdenovirusParvovirisParainfluenza (incl. in bottle)Rabies **
How do you check for cheyletiella
Scotch tape and microscope
How do you check for demodex mites
Skin scrapings. Alopecic area
How do you test for sarcoptoc mites
Skin lesions at ear margins. Do skin scrapings.
What do tapeworms look like
Rice
What do roundworms look like
Spaghetti
What do hookworms look like
Spaghetti with large head
What does using zinc sulfate allow the visualization of
Protozoa (giardia, cryptosporidium etc)Nematodes
What are the deworming schedule recommendations for puppies/kittens
2,4,6,8,10,12 wk then once a month until 6 months
What is the deworming schedule for adult dogs
Approx 4x/ year
What is the deworming schedule for a reproductive bitch
Once during mating, once after giving birth then 2,4 weeks after giving birth
What is the deworming schedule for outdoor cats
Every 3 months but if it’s a hunter cat then 1x/month
What is perfusion
The process in which blood carries oxygen and important nutrients to body tissues. Depends on many body compensatory responses but also on the administration of appropriate fluid volumes to maintain intravascular volume
What to mean conditions is fluid therapy used for
Hypovolemic shock and dehydration
What are six purposes of fluid therapy
Replace water loss, maintain normal hydration, restore electrolytes and nutrients, vehicle to administer IV medications, replenish blood loss, increase or maintain intravascular osmotic pressure
What percent of an animal’s total body weight is made up of water
60%
What percent of body weight is made up of water in neonate’s
80%
What are the three main components of total body water distribution
Intracellular fluid space. Interstitial fluid space. Intravascular fluid space.
What percent of total body water does intracellular fluid space make up
66%
What percent of total body water is interstitial fluid space make up
24%
What percent of total body water does intravascular fluid space make up
10%
What is considered extracellular fluid
Interstitial fluid space and intravascular fluid space
How much percent of total body water does extracellular fluid make up
34%
Describe intracellular fluid
Within cells
Describe interstitial fluid
Between cells
Describe intravascular fluid
Water within blood vessels and lymphatic system
What percent of body weight does the blood volume makeup in dogs
8 to 9% of body weight
What percent of body weight does blood volume make up in cats
6 to 7%.
What is the total body water in a healthy dog
534 to 660 mL per kilogram
What is the estimated intravascular water volume in dogs
90 mL per kilogram
What is the estimated intravascular water volume in cat
45 mL per kilogram
What separates extracellular and intracellular fluid
Cell membrane which is permeable to water but not to most solutes
What solutes does body water contain
Cations, anions and other solutes
What is responsible for generating concentration gradient across the membrane
The ion channels and the active solute pumps
What are the three normal inputs of H2O for an animal
Water, food, metabolism of carbohydrates and fat
What are the three things responsible for the loss of H2O in an animal
Peeing, pooping, sweating and hypersalivation
What is the estimated water loss over 24 hours from peeing
20ml/kg/24hr
What is the estimated water loss over 24hrs from pooping
10-20ml/kg/24hr
What is the estimated water loss over 24hrs from sweating and hyper salivating
20ml/kg/24hr
What is the total estimated loss per day on average
50-60ml/kg/24hr
What is the total estimated fluid loss for puppies/kittens in a day
80ml/kg/24hr
How do you calculate maintence
50-60ml/kg/day
What is osmotic pressure
The amount of pressure necessary to stop the flow of H2O across a semi permeable membrane
What is hydrostatic pressure.
It’s basically blood pressure. Pressure generated by the force of a fluid within a compartment
What is the colloid oncotic pressure
The power of intravascular protein to retain fluid within blood vessels. Opposite to hydrostatic pressure and pulls the fluid into the circulatory system
What is the capillary membrane composed of
Thin membrane of endothelial cells that contain tight or gap junctions through which fluid and Solutes can flow. Permeable to water and electrolytes but not to proteins
What are the two ways solutes dissolved in fluid can flow between compartments
By passive diffusion from an area of higher to lower concentration. Or From one compartment to another by active transport mechanism
What does the rate of fluid exchange depend on
The forces that favor fluid retention within compartments versus the forces that favor fluid movement or filtration from a compartment to another
How is the colloid oncotic pressure dictated
By the concentration of proteins within the space. Albumin mainly contributes to it. Proteins are large molecules so they remain within blood vessels, retaining fluid with them and thereby maintaining blood volume.
What happens when hydrostatic forces exceed oncotic colloid forces
Fluid will leave one compartment and go to the other
What determines how fluids are distributed during fluid therapy
The composition of the administered fluid, in conjunction with the hydrostatic pressure and the colloid oncotic pressure in the capillories and tissues
What does the movement of a particular fluid between compartments depend on
The permeability of the relevant barrier (capillary membrane versus cell membrane)The concentration of molecules contained within each compartment
What will happen to intravenous fluid containing small molecules
It will pass freely out of the capillaries and into the intracellular space. They will be distributed throughout both the intravascular space on the interstitial space
What happens to intervenous solutions containing large molecules
They will remain within the capillaries. They will expand the intravascular space more efficiently
What will happen to intervous solution that is more concentrated than plasma
It will draw water into the blood vessels from the intracellular and interstitial spaces
What two factors cause a disordered fluid balance
Decreased intake or increased output
How is the degree of dehydration estimated
History, physical exam, laboratory tests
When taking the animals history and checking for dehydration what questions do you need to ask about
Route of loss, duration of loss, type of loss, frequency and volume of loss, concurrent medical problems
When doing the physical examination of the animal how do you estimate dehydration
Bodyweight, skin elasticity, pulse quality, mucous membrane color, temperature, attitude, heart rate and respiratory rate
What are acute losses of bodyweight considered
Mostly fluid losses
What does .1 kg of weight lost equal in fluid lost
100 mL of fluid
What an animal is less than 5% dehydrated what are the physical examination findings
History of fluid loss but no physical examination abnormalities
What an animal is 5% dehydrated what are the physical examination findings
Slight decreased skin turgor, semi dry oral mucous membranes
When in animal is 7% dehydrated what are the physical exam findings
Mild to moderate decreased skin turgor, dry oral mucous membranes, slight tachycardia, capillary refill time greater than or equal to three seconds
What an animal’s 10% dehydrated what are the physical exam findings
Moderate to marked decreased skin turgor, Dry oral mucous membranes, moderate signs of shock Pale mucous membranes, tachycardia, capillary refill time greater than three seconds, decreased pulse
What an animal is 13% dehydrated what are the physical exam findings
Plus or minus marked loss of skin turgor, obvious signs of shock.
How do you perform a skin turgor test
Twist the skin in between shoulder blades, the time it takes reflects the dehydration of the animal
What are some points to keep in mind when estimating the degree of dehydration
Aged animals lose their skin elasticity, patients with third space losses have no change in bodyweight: aka pleural effusion or ascites, obese patients or neonates can have abnormally resilient skin even when dehydrated, nausea and salivation moistens dry mucous membranes
What are the laboratory tests to test for dehydration
Packed cell volume, total protein, BUN, glucose, urine specific gravity, electrolytes, CBC, biochem
What are the three phases of fluid therapy
Emergency phase (hypovolemic shock) replacement phase (dehydration), maintenance phase (maintenance volume)
Describe shock
Ineffective perfusion of tissues with blood. Results in cellular hypoxia
What are the six signs of shock
Pale mucous membranes, increased capillary refill time, tachycardia, weak pulse, depression, cool extremities
What is hypovolemia
Decreased fluid volume within the intravenous space due to hemorrhage or trauma.
What happens when more than 25% of intravenous volume is lost
Severe hypovolemia and hypotension. This leads to hypovolemic shock
What happens when 50 to 60% of intravenous volume is lost
Cardiac arrest
What are some common causes of hypovolemia
Significant hemorrhage, loss of plasma water during severe vomiting or diarrhea, end-stage dehydration, inadequate intake, hypoproteinemia
What is the goal of the emergency phase
To reverse hypotension and shock, not to correct dehydration
What happens if the clinical signs of shock resolve after the first bolus of fluid
Proceed to replacement face if the animal is dehydration or the maintenance phase if he is not dehydrated but not eating or drinking
How do you tell if the clinical signs of hypovolemia are resolved
Mucous membrane color improves, heart rate decreases, pulse quality improves, attitude of animal improves, capillary refill time improves, respiratory rate stabilizes, peripheral extremities are warm
What volume of fluid is needed for dogs in the emergency phase
60 to 90 mL/kg/hr
What amount of fluid is needed for a cat in the emergency phase
45 to 60 mL/kg/hr
How do you calculate how many milliliters of fluid you need for the replacement phase
Deficit volume (hydration deficit), maintenance volume, abnormal ongoing losses volume
What is the deficit volume or the hydration deficit
Amount of fluid to be replaced to bring audible back to normal hydration status
What is maintenance fluid
The volume of fluid and amount of electrolytes that must be taken in on a daily basis to keep the volume of total body water and electrolyte content normal.
Is Bordetella bronchiseptica vaccine considered a core vaccine
No
Is leptospirosis considered a non-core vaccine
Yes
True or false only 20% of puppies and kittens are infected with roundworms and hookworms
False
True or false puppies and kittens should be dewormed until four months of age
True
True or false leptospirosis vaccine should be given every year
True
True or false solution injected subcutaneously is more rapidly absorbed then intravenously
False
True or false while doing an intramuscular injection into the thigh, the needle must be directed toward the caudal aspect of the Limb
True
True or false the lingual vein is mainly used for emergency drug administration
True
True or false the F I V vaccine is considered a core vaccine
False
What is the cranial landmark for the dorsal lumbar muscle IM injection
The last rib
What is the Caudal landmark of the dorsal lumbar muscle Im injection
Crest of ilium
Why does the American Association of feline practitioners recommend boosters until 16 weeks of age for the FVRCP vaccine in cats
To minimize vaccination failure that can occur due to the presence of maternal antibodies from the RCP vaccine
True or false after recovery from feline rhinotracheitis the cats do not remain a carrier of the virus
False
True or false the treatment for feline chlamydia is mainly oral and ocular antibiotics
True
What are the four serovars present in the canine leptospirosis vaccine
Leptospira canicola, grippotyphosa, pomona, icterohaemorrhagie
True or false the neurological signs of canine distemper can be tremors, paralysis, seizures
True
What is a common clinical sign caused by Feline Calicivirus
Oral ulcer
What type of diarrhea is a classic clinical signs of feline Panleukopenia
Bloody
What is the incubation period for Lyme disease
2 to 5 months
What canine infectious disease is characterized by a maximum intensity harsh and dry cough
Canine tracheobronchitis
List three clinical signs that are associated with canine parvovirus
Lethargy, weight loss due to dehydration, diarrhea
What is the goal of fluid therapy
To ensure the patient has an adequate amount of fluid distributed appropriately in the body to maintain homeostasis and perfusion
What is a solute
Particles that are dissolved in sterile water of an IV fluid
What is osmolarity
Concentration in terms of Oz moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. Largely determined by sodium and glucose
What are the two main groups of fluids
Cristalloids, Colloids
What is a cristalloid fluid
A substance in a solution that can pass through a semi permeable membrane. True solutions of homogeneous mixture of electrolytes with or without dextrose. Expand the intravenous space and cause better tissue perfusion, can replenish fluid losses within and outside blood vessels
What is a disadvantage of cristalloids
Require 2 to 4 times the volume lost by patients with hypovolemia
Define iso tonic high sodium crystalloid
Solution that contains a high amount of sodium, the exact same osmolarity as plasma and extracellular fluid’s.
What happens when isotonic crystalloid is administered
Explains the intravenous space
What are isotonic cristalloids usually used for
Replacement phase: due to readily available easily administered and inexpensive cost. I.e. parvovirus, gastric foreign body, hepatic lipidosisMaintenance phase: during anestheticEmergency phase: hypovolemic shock
What are some commonly used isotonic Christalloids
.9% NaCl , lactated ringer, plasma lyte
What is a hypotonic Cristalloid
Solution which the osmolarity is lower than that of plasma and extracellular fluid. Has a lower sodium ion concentration then serum. Causes cells to expand
What are the common indications for hypotonic Christalloids
Intermittent sub Q fluid administration for cat with chronic renal insufficiency, cardiac patient
What are some commonly used hypotonic Christalloids
.45% NACl plus or minus dextrose, dextrose 2.5%
What is a hypertonic crystalloid
Solution with greater osmolarity than plasma in extracellular fluid. Solution of high sodium concentration. Causes cells to shrink
Why would you use hypertonic crystalloid fluid
For hypovolemic shock patients
What are some common hypertonic crystalloids
7.5% NaCl
What is a colloud fluid
High molecular weight ingredient dissolved in a replacement solution, usually .9%
Describe colloid movement
Most of the solution is retained within intervenous space where it increases osmotic pressure of blood, expands intravenous be sufficiently, asked to hold water in bloodstream and maintain blood pressure
What is the advantage to colloid fluid
More effective than crystalloids at expanding blood volume when given at the same rate and volume
What are the two categories of colloids
Natural colloids and synthetic colloids
What are some natural colloids
Plasma product, whole blood product, hemoglobin-based product, albumin
What is colloid fluid used for
Increasing COP of plasma in patients with Hypoalbuminemia, increasing the circulating blood volume when shock is present, hypovolemic patients to reduce edema
During the emergency phase what type of fluid do you use
Iso tonic solution, hypertonic solution, Colloid solution
During the replacement phase what type of fluids do you use
Isotonic solution, hypotonic solution
During the maintenance phase what type of fluids do use
Isa tonic, hypotonic, colloid
If there’s no patient between the film and the x-ray beam what color will the film be
Black
What is the degree of blackness on a radiograph dependent on
The amount of x-rays reaching the film
What is the emulsion layer of the film
Contains silver hollered crystals suspended and disbursed evenly throughout the layer. On both sides to increase film sensitivity, speed, density, contrast
When the film is developed in developer solution the sensitized silver will be converted to what on the x-ray film after processing
Dark black dots
If there is an object between the x-ray beam and the film, exposing the film to radiation will create a what image because not all x-rays will reach the film
Latent
After producing the film the latent image will be converted to what
2-D image
What is MA used for
To control the quality of x-rays produced by the x-ray beam. When MA is increased a higher number of x-rays are generated
What is the length of exposure time
The period of time during which the x-rays are permitted to leave the x-ray tube.
What is the general exposure time for dogs at Vanier
1/24
What is the general exposure time for cats at vanier
1/30
What does the MAS describes
The total quantity of x-rays produced by the x-ray tube at a given time.
What is the KV P
Amount of electrical energy being applied to the anode and cathode to accelerate the radiation from the cathode toward the target
What happens when KV P is increased
The penetrating power of x-ray through tissue is increased
What are the three things that radiographic quality is dependent on
Radiographic density, radiographic contrast, radiographic detail
What is radiographic density
The degree of blackness on a radiograph.
What can the radiographic density be increased by
Increasing the MAS, increasing the KV P
What is radiographic density also influenced by
Thickness and type of tissue
Tissues. That have higher density absorb more x-rays and result in what color
White or light image
What can you say about bones and x-rays in terms of density and contrast
They have a high density. But decrease the radiographic density. They are high contrast
What is radiographic contrast
The difference in density between two adjacent areas on a radiographic image
What is low contrast
Long scale of contrast. Many shades of gray
What is a high contrast
Short scale of contrast. Few shades of gray. Ex: bones
What is radiographic contrast affected by
Subject density, KV P level, scatter radiation, film fogging
What is the definition of subject density in relation with radiographic contrast
The ability of the different tissue density us to absorb x-rays. Xers penetrate the various tissues depending on differences in atomic number and thickness
What happens when you increase subject density
Will increase radiographic contrast.
What can High KVP produce
A low curling trust radiograph. The higher the KV P, the longer the scale of contrast.
What happens with low KVP
Produces a high contrast radiograph with a short scale of contrast.
What anatomical regions require a high KVP setting
Thorax and abdomen
What anatomical regions require low KVP setting
Bones
What is scatter radiation
Radiation produced when x-rays from primary beam collide with objects in its path, I merge in all different directions.
Why is scatter radiation undesirable
Fogs the film, contrast is decreased, you are exposed to radiation
Why does high KV P produce more scatter radiation
Controls penetrating power of x-rays so more x-rays get through patient and through the film
What is an important beam limiting device
Collimators or grids
What are the causes of film fogging
Leaks in darkroom, scatter radiation, heat, improper processing
What is a grid
Device placed between patient and film to absorb scatter radiation and improve image quality
What is a Bucky
Device placed under the x-ray table that moves the grid back-and-forth. Placed in the cabinet beneath x-ray table with a trade to hold cassette. Decreases or eliminates white gridlines on radiograph
What is Geo metric unsharpness due to
Patient motion, long exposure time
How do you prevent geometric unsharpness
Have shortest possible exposure time
What is foreshortening
When image seems smaller than really is not parallel to recording surface. Subject must be parallel to photo graphic plate
What is the normal temperature for cats
38.1 to 39.2
What is the normal pulse rate for dogs
60-140bpm
What is the normal pulse rate for toy breeds
60-180bpm
What is the normal pulse rate for puppies
60-220bpm
What is the normal pulse rate for cats
140-220bpm
What is the normal respiratory rate for dogs
10-30bpm
What is the normal respiratory rate for cats
24-42bpm
In the field, if an animal stops breathing what Is the order of stuff you’re supposed to do
Check airwaysGive artificial breathing: mouth to snout 1 breath per 3 seconds Check circulation. *****get heart pumping before breathing.
What is cardiac arrest
Absence of effective contraction of the heart.
What is cardiorespiratory arrest
Complete stop of cardiac and respiratory activities that will lead to permanent damage and death if not addressed within 3-4 mins
What is the warning signs of cardiorespiratory arrest
Signs of hypotension Shallow or rapid breathing Bleeding from wounds may stop Bladder and Anus may relaxPupils may begin to diliate
What are the clinical signs of CRA
No heart beatNo femoral pulseNo respiration Blue or grey mucus membranesMydriasis of pupilsNo bleeding of wounds
What position does the dog have to be in for cpr
Need to be in right lateral.
What is the success rate of cpr in the field
0%
What is the normal temperature for dogs
37.5-39.2
What is the cranial and caudal landmark for the vd abdomen d
Diaphragm and greater trochanter of the femur
What is the cranial and caudal landmark for right lateral thorax
Manubrium and diaphragm
What are the 3 steps required to set up the automatic processor
Turn it on, make sure valves are closed, press run
What is required by the omvq for X-ray labels
Vet clinic, date, clients first name, clients last name, pets name, r/L view, X-ray view
Do you take abdomen on inspiration and expiration
Expiration
Do you take thorax on inspiration or expiration
Inspiration
What is the cranial and Caudal landmarks of the pelvic X-ray
Wings of ileum and stifle joint
Explain how to take an X-ray of the mediolateral view of the right knee
Center over joint and collimating to view the whole joint
Explain how to take an X-ray of the mediolateral view of the left elbow
Center over the joint and collimate to view the whole joint
How do you know if it’s adequate penetration
Anatomic silhouettes are visible. The film appears grey around the patient and you can see your fingers behind it.
What do you change if the X-ray has good penetration but lacks the blackness
Increase mas x2
What do you do if the outlines are not visible in an X-ray
Increase KVP by 10%
What are the two questions to ask yourself if a X-ray is good
Is the film too light or too dark?Is there proper penetration
What are the qualities of a quality radiograph
Adequate penetration, sufficient density, good scale of contrast.
What type of contrast do you want for soft tissue
Low contrast
What type of contrast do you want for bone
High contrast
What do radiopaque areas appear
White
What color are radiolucent areas
Black
Describe a positive contrast agent
Absorb more X-rays than soft tissue or bone. Contains element with a high density
Describe negative contrast agents
Do not absorb X-rays. Appear black
What are some advantages to barium sulfate as a positive contrast media
Insoluable and not diluted by gastric secretions ➡️ ideal for gi studies Inexpensive
What is the disadvantage of barium sulfate
The body cannot eliminate it since it is insoluable so if there is GI perforation it will not be absorbed and can cause irritations and cause risk of peritonitis reactions. Can take 3 hrs or more to travel from stomach to colon.
When can you not use barium sulfate
When there is a GI perforation
What are organic iodides
Positive contrast mediumOpaque Easily injectedWell tolerated Water soluable: kidneys CAN BE EITHER IONIC OR NONIONIC
Why would you use a PO formulation of a water soluable organic ionic iodide
For contrast studies of GI tract when GI tract perforation is suspected
Why would you use an IV formulation of water soluable organic ionic iodides
To inject into a hollow organ such as bladder or an IV.
Why isn’t iv formulation of water soluable organic ionic iodides used for myelography
Because it is irritating to the brain and the spinal cord
What does rapid large IV bolus of water soluble organic ionic iodides cause
Vomiting and decreased blood pressure. Give a slow bolus
What are water soluble organic non-ionic iodides used for
Myelography since it costs a lot of money
What is myelography
To be injected into the sub arachnoid space the compartment within the spinal column which contains the cerebral spinal fluid
What can be used as a negative contrast media with gas
Air, O2, N2, N2O, CO2
Why must you not over inflate the organs when doing a negative contrast media with gas
Ulcerative lesions that causes the organ to rupture and cause an air embolism
What are the negative and positive components to a double contrast procedure
Negative: airPositive: water soluble organic ionic iodide
With what organs would you do a double contrast procedure
The urinary bladder, the stomach, the colon
How do you perform a double contrast procedure
Inject the negative contrast medium first such as the air.
Why do inject the negative contrast medium first in double contrast procedures
Can cause air bubbles to form and misinterpretation
How do you introduce contrast media
Oral administration or orogastric tube to prevent aspiration
Why are radiographs taken at intervals during contrast studies of the digestive system
Changes in morphology, rate of gastric emptying, small bowel transit time.
What are the warnings in contrast studies
Aspiration pneumonia, if you suspect perforation use an organic ionic iodide
How long should the patient be fasted before a contrast study
12 to 24 hours fasted
Do you use an enema in the contrast study
You may or may not use it depending.
Do use anesthetic in a contrast media
No because it alters gastric motility
Why is atropine or glycopyrrolate contra indicated when you’re doing contrast studies
It’s an anti-cholinergic drug that increases heart rate and decreases saliva it also relaxes the smooth muscle so it slows down gastric motility
Which anesthetic is okay for dogs in contrast studies
Ace promazine. Minimal facts on gastric motility in the dog. significantly shortened the transit time for cats. If gastric motility is a concern do not use Acepromazine in the cat.
What sedative is okay to use in a cat for contrast studies instead of Acepromazine
Ketamine
Why do you do a esophgography
To evaluate oesophageal function and structural alterations.
Why would you do a esophagography
Regurgitation of undigested food, acute gagging, dysphasia
Describe the contrast medium in an esophgography
Positive contrast medium. Barium sulfate paste mixed with canned food, if you suspect perforation use water soluble organic ionic iodide. Give it directly by the mouth with a syringe or an orogastric tube
What x-ray views are required when doing an esophagography
Lateral and VD of cervical and thoracic area including total length of esophagus
When do you do a ugi study
To evaluate stomach and small intestine, not the colon.
Why would you do a ugi
In the presence of reoccurring chronic vomiting. when suspecting obstruction by radiolucent foreign body into the stomach or small intestines. when suspecting wall lesions such as neoplasia
What is the contrast media used for the UGI study
Positive contrast agent barium sulfate 30% liquid diluted with one-to-one water. Water-soluble organic ionic iodide if suspected perforation
What is the quantity of contrast media to give for a UGI study
3 to 5 mL per pound
How do you give the contrast media for a UGI study
By Mouth or by an orogastric tube
What materials do you need to perform a UTI a study by mouth
Large dose syringe filled with the barium and administer directly into the mouth.
What materials are used for orogastric intubation for UTI study
Introduce an orange feeding tube into her stomach then connect the syringe filled with the appropriate quantity of barium
Perform the procedure for UTI study
Radiographs are made during transit of contrast to the stomach and small intestine until it reaches the colon. You need to do multiple x-rays at zero, 15, 30, 60, 90 +/- 180 min. Must do vd and lateral each time
Why do you do a Gastrography
To evaluate size shape and morphology of the stomach.
Why do you do a Gastrography
Acute or chronic vomiting, mass, foreign body, obstruction, cranial abdominal pain
Which contrast media do use for Gastrography
+ barium sulfate suspension 60% + water soluble in organic ionic iodide if suspected perforation - air. Double contrast agents
What is an LG I study used for
Introduction of a contrast media into the rectum, colon or caecum to study their position or Contour
Why do you do in LGI study
For diarrhea, tenesmus, blood, colitis, obstruction, neoplasia, to detect intussusceptions.
What is tenesmus
Forcing to pAss stools
What is intussuceptions
Intestines rolling inside itself
What is the contrast media used for a LGI study
+ barium sulfate 20% (60% diluted with saline)- or double contrasts.
How do you introduce the Contrast medium into the LGI study
By Foley catheter. Requires general anesthesia
What composes the upper urinary tract system
The kidneys and ureters
What composes the lower urinary tract system
Bladder and urethra
Why do we do a contrast study of the urinary tract
Indicated in patients with chronic problems such as chronic hematuria, protein urea, Crystalluria, polyuria, dysuria
What is a Cystography
Introduction of a contrast media into the bladder via the urinary catheter
Why would you do his cystography
Cystic calculi, neoplasia, bladder rupture, bladder wall anomaly
What does rapid large IV bolus of water soluble organic ionic iodides cause
Vomiting and decreased blood pressure. Give a slow bolus
What are water soluble organic non-ionic iodides used for
Myelography since it costs a lot of money
What is myelography
To be injected into the sub arachnoid space the compartment within the spinal column which contains the cerebral spinal fluid
What can be used as a negative contrast media with gas
Air, O2, N2, N2O, CO2
Why must you not over inflate the organs when doing a negative contrast media with gas
Ulcerative lesions that causes the organ to rupture and cause an air embolism
What are the negative and positive components to a double contrast procedure
Negative: airPositive: water soluble organic ionic iodide
With what organs would you do a double contrast procedure
The urinary bladder, the stomach, the colon
How do you perform a double contrast procedure
Inject the negative contrast medium first such as the air.
Why do inject the negative contrast medium first in double contrast procedures
Can cause air bubbles to form and misinterpretation
How do you introduce contrast media
Oral administration or orogastric tube to prevent aspiration
Why are radiographs taken at intervals during contrast studies of the digestive system
Changes in morphology, rate of gastric emptying, small bowel transit time.
What are the warnings in contrast studies
Aspiration pneumonia, if you suspect perforation use an organic ionic iodide
How long should the patient be fasted before a contrast study
12 to 24 hours fasted
Do you use an enema in the contrast study
You may or may not use it depending.
Do use anesthetic in a contrast media
No because it alters gastric motility
Why is atropine or glycopyrrolate contra indicated when you’re doing contrast studies
It’s an anti-cholinergic drug that increases heart rate and decreases saliva it also relaxes the smooth muscle so it slows down gastric motility
Which anesthetic is okay for dogs in contrast studies
Ace promazine. Minimal facts on gastric motility in the dog. significantly shortened the transit time for cats. If gastric motility is a concern do not use Acepromazine in the cat.
What sedative is okay to use in a cat for contrast studies instead of Acepromazine
Ketamine
Why do you do a esophgography
To evaluate oesophageal function and structural alterations.
Why would you do a esophagography
Regurgitation of undigested food, acute gagging, dysphasia
Describe the contrast medium in an esophgography
Positive contrast medium. Barium sulfate paste mixed with canned food, if you suspect perforation use water soluble organic ionic iodide. Give it directly by the mouth with a syringe or an orogastric tube
What x-ray views are required when doing an esophagography
Lateral and VD of cervical and thoracic area including total length of esophagus
When do you do a ugi study
To evaluate stomach and small intestine, not the colon.
Why would you do a ugi
In the presence of reoccurring chronic vomiting. when suspecting obstruction by radiolucent foreign body into the stomach or small intestines. when suspecting wall lesions such as neoplasia
What is the contrast media used for the UGI study
Positive contrast agent barium sulfate 30% liquid diluted with one-to-one water. Water-soluble organic ionic iodide if suspected perforation
What is the quantity of contrast media to give for a UGI study
3 to 5 mL per pound
How do you give the contrast media for a UGI study
By Mouth or by an orogastric tube
What materials do you need to perform a UTI a study by mouth
Large dose syringe filled with the barium and administer directly into the mouth.
What materials are used for orogastric intubation for UTI study
Introduce an orange feeding tube into her stomach then connect the syringe filled with the appropriate quantity of barium
Perform the procedure for UTI study
Radiographs are made during transit of contrast to the stomach and small intestine until it reaches the colon. You need to do multiple x-rays at zero, 15, 30, 60, 90 +/- 180 min. Must do vd and lateral each time
Why do you do a Gastrography
To evaluate size shape and morphology of the stomach.
Why do you do a Gastrography
Acute or chronic vomiting, mass, foreign body, obstruction, cranial abdominal pain
Which contrast media do use for Gastrography
+ barium sulfate suspension 60% + water soluble in organic ionic iodide if suspected perforation - air. Double contrast agents
What is an LG I study used for
Introduction of a contrast media into the rectum, colon or caecum to study their position or Contour
Why do you do in LGI study
For diarrhea, tenesmus, blood, colitis, obstruction, neoplasia, to detect intussusceptions.
What is tenesmus
Forcing to pAss stools
What is intussuceptions
Intestines rolling inside itself
What is the contrast media used for a LGI study
+ barium sulfate 20% (60% diluted with saline)- or double contrasts.
How do you introduce the Contrast medium into the LGI study
By Foley catheter. Requires general anesthesia
What composes the upper urinary tract system
The kidneys and ureters
What composes the lower urinary tract system
Bladder and urethra
Why do we do a contrast study of the urinary tract
Indicated in patients with chronic problems such as chronic hematuria, protein urea, Crystalluria, polyuria, dysuria
What is a Cystography
Introduction of a contrast media into the bladder via the urinary catheter
Why would you do his cystography
Cystic calculi, neoplasia, bladder rupture, bladder wall anomaly
What is the positive contrast medium used in a cystography
Water soluable organic ionic iodide.
What is the negative contrast media used in a cystography
Air.
What is a urethrography
Filling the urethra with a contrast medium
Why would you do a urethrography
Calculus, to detect urethral trauma. Stricture, obstruction.
What is the positive contrast media used in a urethrography
Water soluable organic ionic iodide
What is the negative contrast medium use in a urethrography
Air
What is an excretory urography
Iv injection of a cm into venous blood gets filtered out and collected by kidneys.
Why do you do an excretory urography
To evaluate renal function and ureters. To see kidney structure and kidney capacity to concentrate and excrete urine
What is the contrast medium used in an excretory urography
Sterile water soluable iodinated contrast medium
What are 5 typical properties of an ideal contrast medium
Non irritating or toxic side effects. Accurate delineation of the organ. Persistence for sufficient time to take radiographs, total expulsion from body.
Why do you do a negative contrast studies
Show the location, size and wall thickness of the organ.
What is a positive contrast study
Best way of detecting a small defect in the wall of the organ as minor contrast leakage is easily seen
What is a double contrast study
Uses a small amount of positive contrast medium to coat the mucosal surface of a hollow organ such as the bladder. Followed by the distension with air.
What is cr
Computed radiography
What is computed radiography
Uses storage phosphor image plates that are exposed and then undergo a seperate image readout process. The image plate is contained in a cassette
What is Dr
Direct radiography
What is direct radiography
Convert X-ray into electrical charges more or less directly, enabling almost instantaneous readout. Uses no cassette.
What is a fluroscopy
Uses X-rays to obtain real time moving images
What is a cat scan
X-ray generating tube that makes a continuous circular movement around the patient. Mathematically reconstruct a cross sectional image of a body area
What is a mri
Magnetic resonance imaging. Uses magnets and radiowaves to make the image. No X-ray produced.
What is ultrasound used for
Displays the soft tissue textures and dynamics of some organs.
How are sound waves classified
By wavelength Frequency Velocity
What is a wavelength
Distance from one band of compression to the next. Have a shorter wavelength than audible sound.
What is the frequency defined as
Number of complete waveforms per unit of time
Describe the relationship between frequency and wavelength
Inversely proportional . As the frequency increases the wavelength decreases
Describe the sound waves used by an ultrasound
High frequency sound waves
What does an ultrasound transducter probe do
Produces the ultrasound beam. Produces low intensity, high frequency sound waves.
Describe how the ultrasound probe works
It has piezoelectric crystals. When an electrical current runs through the crystals they vibrate and produce sound waves. When they’re stuck by the returning echoes the crystals convert the echoes to electrical energy
What type of energy is ultrasound based on
Reflected energy
What type of energy is radiology based on
Transmitted energy
What does echogenic mean
That most of the sound is reflected back to the transducter. Appears white on the screen.
What does anechoic mean
Describes the tissues that transmit the sound to the deeper tissues and reflecting none of the sound back to the transducter. The area appears black on the screen and they’re usually an organs fluids
What does hypoechoic mean
Describes tissues that reflect less sound back to the transductor than the surrounding tissues. They appear darker than the surrounding tissues and have a low level of grey compared to adjacent tissues.
What is hyperechoic
Describes tissues that reflect more sound back than the surrounding tissues. Reflects very white echoes and causes acoustic shadowing
What is an example of a hypoechoic item
Hematoma
What is an example of a hyperechoic item
Air, bone, bladder stones etx.
What is isoechoic items
Items with the same echo texture as the surrounding tissues.
Why do we clip an animals hair for ultrasound
Interferes with image and decreases quality
Why do we use acoustic gel on the ultrasound probe
To increase contact surfaces
Why do you avoid barium or topical products with zinc when doing an ultrasound
Will interfere with sound transmission
If you’re doing an abdominal ultrasound do you have to fast
Yes for 12hr to allow visualization of stomach.
What can an ultrasound be used to see
Abdominal organsHeartEye and surrounding structures Soft tissues around spine and extremitiesTendons and muscles.
What are some advantages to ultrasound
Provide information about organ architecture. Helpful is debilitated or young patients where you Cannot use contrast medium. Able to distinguish solid masses from ones containing fluid. Can do cytology
What are some disadvantages to ultrasound
Gas gets in the way of imaging. Approach is more difficult in a big dog Great equipment cost Require lots of training
What is the second stage of fibroplastic healing
Collagen phase. Collagen is created and layed down in wound to close it
What is the 3rd stage of fibroplastic healing
Maturation phase. Scar eventually forms and becomes flatter, paler and softens dramatically.
What is epithelial regeneration and when does it occur
Starts within hours of wound appearing but can take up to 5 days before cells completely migrate across the wound itself to attach to each other. Occurs in fibroblastic stage
What are systemic factors that affect wound healing
AgeNutritional status Disease
What are local factors that affect wound healing
Extent of damage in wound. Dessication of woundVascularity of area effected. Infection of wound Bleeding of woundForeign material in wound
What does dessication of the wound cause
Tissue destruction and delayed healing
What does the vascularity of an area affect
Highly vascular areas heal more quickly than others
What does infection do to the wound healing
Mechanically seperation of wound margins or cellular disruption by toxins.
What does bleeding do to slow wound healing
Clots must be absorbed or liquified. Best hemostasis is with pressure, clamping and tying and finally cautery
What is the first stage of fibroplastic healing
Exudative stage. Acute inflammation and release of chemical mediators.
What does a foreign body do to slow the healing
Will form a drainage tract as long as some remains.
What are some external factors that affect wound healing
Drugs such as corticosteroidsRadiotherapy
If a wound has been exposed for less than 6-8 hrs what is it considered
Uncomplicated and uninfected.
If a wound is open more than 8hrs what is it considered
Complicated and infected
What are the three types of wound healing
First intention Second intentionThird intention
What is healing by first intention
Primary closure and has a small scar
What is healing by second intention
Granulation tissue with a scab and a large scar
What is third intention healing
Suturing once granulation tissue has formed.
What are the three c’s of wound treatment
CleansingClosing Covering
How do you prepare uncomplicated wounds
Protect while shaving areaCleanse skin with antiseptic Flush wound with saline or chlorexidine Excise dead tissue and suture wound Apply dressing or bandages as needed
How do you prepare complicated wounds
Protect while shaving areaCleanse skin with antiseptic Flush wound with chlorhexidine. Apply wet saline dressings Cover with tefle pad Bandage.
How does fluid drain with a penrose drain
Drains around them rather than through them.
Generally when do you remove sutures
Between 7-14days
What are some topical antibiotics
Polysporin, neomycin, silver sulfadiazine, nitrofurazone.
What are some enzymatic debriefing agents
Castor oil, preparation H
What do hydrophilic agents do
Cause diffusion of fluids through wound tissues into a bandage and allows easier absorption
What are some lavage solutions you can use
Chlorhexidine solution, tris EDTA, povidone iodine, acetic acid
Why do we use bandages
Prevent contamination of woundPrevent mutilation Maintain clean environment for wound healing Control edema (swelling) and seromaPrevent use of limbSupport weak tissue Secure catheters
What are the ten primary indications for bandages
AbsorptionProtectionAntisepsisPressure Immobilization DebridementPackingInformationComfortAesthetic
Describe the absorption of a dressing
Acts as a passageway and storage for wound draining.
Describe the first layer of a bandage
Tefle pad to prevent adhesion.
Describe te second layer of a bandage
Cling or cotton roll
Describe the third layer of a bandage
Cling or vet wrap
What is the protection role of a bandage
Protect the wound from further trauma
What is the immobilization function of a bandage
Places the wound and rest and thereby decreases ️pain present and allows healing to occur without disruption from mechanical trauma. Also decreases the amount of scar tissue formation
Describe the pressure aspect of a bandage
May exert a slight amount of pressure upon a wound. Reducing the amount of transudate collected in a dead space. Reduces the possibility of a seroma or a hematoma which become an excellent culture media for bacteria.
What do you have to check the bandage for
Swelling, coolness, dryness and odour.
What is debridement
Wet wound dressings are indicated to decrease the viscosity of the thick wound secretions thus aiding in their removal.
What are some materials for bandaging
Gauze squaresKing /conform bandageRoll cotton and roll paddingDifferent types of tape and Elastoplast Vet wrap Tefla pads
What is the contact layer
Touches wound surface and remains in contact during movement Should minimize pain and prevent excess loss of body fluidsAdherant - debridement required. Nonadherant - used when granulation tissue has formed and does not stick to wound.
Describe the intermediate layer to bandages
Absorbent layer, removes and stores exudate, should be thick enough to collect fluid. Pads the wound against trauma. Limits movement and holds the contact layer in place
What is the outer layer use for
Holds the other parts in place
What are adherant bandage
Assist in debriding by liquefying necrotic debris.
What are stabilizing bandages used for
Used to minimize further tissue damages, these are heavily padded such as a Robert Jones
What are pressure bandages used for
Used to facilitate control of minor hemorrhage, edema. Goods for those spays that bleed, also for animals in shock
What are pressure relief bandages used for
Used to prevent pressure, usually over a bony prominence. Donut shaped and well padded and difficult to maintain in place
Describe an eye surgery bandage
Slip 2 fingers under
Describe an aural hematoma bandage
If tight don’t remove, just snip and retape loosely.
Describe a pharyngostomy tube
If it slips and restricts respiration or swells neck then remove
