Anatomy and Physiology (2nd) Flashcards
All information that was taught to me while attending Vanier College's "Animal Health Technology" Program, located in St-Laurent Montreal.
1
Q
What is a dental arch
A
The complete arched arrangement of upper or lower teeth. Also known as the dental arcade
2
Q
What is a quadrant
A
The left or right half of each dental arch
3
Q
What are incisor teeth
A
The most rostral group of teeth
4
Q
What are canine teeth
A
The teeth located just lateral to the incisor teeth
5
Q
What are pre-molar teeth
A
The rostral cheek Teeth
6
Q
What are molar teeth
A
The caudal cheek teeth
7
Q
What is a crown
A
The exposed part of a tooth above the gumline
8
Q
What is a root
A
The hidden part of a tooth below the gum line
9
Q
What is a Coronal
A
Toward the crown of the tooth
10
Q
What is apical
A
Toward the tip of the root of the tooth
11
Q
What is gingival
A
Toward the gingiva a.k.a. gum
12
Q
What is furcation
A
The area where the roots of a multi rooted tooth join the crown
13
Q
What is mesial
A
For canine, premolar, molar teeth, the surface or edge facing the rostral end of the mouth. For the incisor teeth, the surface or edge facing towards the center a.k.a. midline
14
Q
What is distal
A
For canine, premolar, molar teeth the surface or edge facing toward the caudal end of the mouth. For the incisor teeth, the surface or edge farthest from the center a.k.a. midline
15
Q
What is buccal
A
Surface of a tooth facing the cheeks
16
Q
What is palatal
A
Surface of an upper tooth facing the hard palate
17
Q
What is labial
A
Surface of the tooth facing the lips
18
Q
What is lingual
A
Surface of the lower tooth facing the tongue
19
Q
What is the incisal edge
A
The cutting edge of a sharp tooth’s crown
20
Q
What is the occlusal surface
A
The flat grinding surface of molar teeth
21
Q
What is interproximal space
A
Space between adjacent teeth
22
Q
What is interproximal surface
A
The surface of the tooth that faces the adjacent tooth
23
Q
What are the functions of the digestive system
A
Prehension, ingestion, mastication, digestive tract , Absorption of nutrients and water, elimination of waste
24
Q
What is prehension
A
The grasping of food
25
What is ingestion
The taking in of food
26
What is mastication
Chewing of food
27
What is the digestive tract
Also known as G.I. tract, alimentary canal
28
List the layers of tissue that compose the wall of the G.I. tract from superficial to deep
1. Serosa.2. Muscularis composed of longitudinal muscle layer and circular muscle layer3. Submucosa4. Mucosa
29
What is the serosa.
Serosa is a serous membrane which is the outermost layer of the wall of the G.I. tract
30
What is the serosa composed of
Epithelium, basement membrane, lamina propria
31
What is the function of the serosa
Protection and secretion, serous fluid reduces friction between layers
32
What is the muscularis externa composed of
Mainly composed of involuntary smooth muscle. Longitudinal and circular
33
What is the longitudinal smooth muscle do in the muscularis externa
Shorten tube
34
What does the circular smooth muscle layer of the muscularis externa do
Constricts the tube
35
What do the longitudinal and circular smooth muscle in the muscularis externa aid in
The aid in the propulsion of food from the esophagus to the rectum. By means of peristalsis and segmentation
36
What are sphincters
Thickened rings of circular smooth muscle which act like valves throughout the tract
37
Where is skeletal muscle found
Mouth, pharynx, cranial portion of the esophagus, and external anal sphincter
38
What is the skeletal muscle used for
Aids in chewing and swallowing, and defecation
39
What is peristalsis
Progressive contractions of smooth muscle propelling food down the G.I. tract
40
What is segmentation
Alternating contractions move food back-and-forth to mix and slow progress down in G.I. tract
41
What is the submucosa and what does it contain
The submucosa is a layer of loose connective tissue containing blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, follicles, nerves. Elastic fibers allow stretching and restoration of shape
42
What is the mucosa and what does it contain
The mucosa is a mucous membrane which is the innermost layer. Contains epithelium, basement membrane, lamina propria, muscularis mucosae
43
What are the functions of the mucosa
Secretion: mucus, digestive enzymes and hormones. Absorption of nutrients and water. Protection against disease
44
What are the two anal sphincter's
Internal: internal anal sphincter that's involuntarily controlledExternal: external anal sphincter voluntarily controlled
45
What are two serous membranes in the body
Parietal layer which lines the cavities. Visceral layer which covers organs
46
Where is plural membrane located
Thoracic cavity
47
Where is the peritoneal membrane located
Abdominal cavity
48
What is the mesentery
Bands of peritoneal tissue that suspend the digestive tract from the body wall. Contain blood and lymphatic vessels and nerves
49
What are the digestive organs
Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine and, large intestine
50
What is the small intestine composed of
Duodenum, jejunum, ileum
51
What is the large intestine composed of
Colon, caecum, rectum, anus
52
What are the secondary organs
Salivary glands, pancreas, gallbladder, liver
53
What are the functions of the oral cavity
Location of prehension and ingestion. Beginning of mechanical breakdown and chemical digestion. Moistening/lubrication of food which aids in swallowing. Site of evaporative cooling a.k.a. Panting
54
What is the oral cavity lined with
Mucosa. Gums cover the jawbone
55
What are the structures of the oral cavity
Lips, tongue, salivary gland, teeth, hard palate, soft palate, oropharynx
56
What are the salivary glands
Paired exocrine glands with ducts that lead to oral cavity. Produces and releases saliva. Continuous production is increased or decreased by various stimuli
57
What does the saliva of non-carnivores contain
The enzymes amylase and lipase
58
What are the functions of the salivary glands
Lubricate and find food together, chemical digestion of carbs and fat, neutralization of bicarbonate stomach acid, evaporative cooling and flush away debris's, reduce overgrowth of microbial populations
59
What are the functions of teeth
Grasping, tearing, mastication
60
Where is the upper arcade contained
Contained in the maxilla and incisive bones
61
Where is the lower arcade contained
Contained in the mandible
62
What is the occlusial surface
Where the teeth come together
63
What are the four types of teeth
Incisors, canines, premolars, molars
64
What is the purpose of the incisors
Grasping and snipping teeth. Most rostral teeth of upper and lower arcade
65
What are canines for
Tearing teeth located caudal to incisors. Longer than other teeth and pointed at the tip
66
What are premolars for
Cutting teeth known as the rostral cheek teeth. Has sharp points and surfaces in carnivores
67
What are the molars for
Grinding teeth known as caudal cheeks teeth. Contain longer, flatter occlusal surfaces
68
Describe the teeth shape of herbivores
Have flat occlusal surfaces that are good for grinding plant material
69
Describe the teeth shape of carnivores
More pointed at their occlusal surface, slightly curved caudally. Good for holding pray, tearing, cutting and shredding. They are also have carnassial Teeth
70
What are carnassial teeth
Found in carnivores, has a scissor like action. In the upper arcade it's the last premolar. In the lower arcade it's the first molar
71
What is the crown of the tooth
The top of the tooth
72
What is the apex of the tooth
Bottom of the tooth
73
What is the pulp of the tooth
Center of tooth
74
What is the Dentin
Surrounds and protects the tooth pulp
75
What is the cementum
The calcified layer covering the root of the tooth
76
What is enamel
Covers the crown of the tooth
77
What is the gingiva
The gums
78
What are brachydont
Low crown teeth. Carnivores and omnivores
79
What is hypsodont
High Crown teeth, continual growth which allows for eating of gritty abrasive material. Herbivores.
80
What is teeth floating in horses
Occlusal surfaces are smoothed with a file or a rasp
81
What is the pharynx
Divided into nasal and oral pharynx by soft palate. Tonsils located in the walls between mouth and pharynx. It carries water, food, gas. Muscles in muscularis assistant swallowing. Epiglottis directs food and water down digestive tract by covering larynx
82
What are the layers of the esophagus wall
Mucosa, submucosa, lumen, muscularis externa(circular/longitudinal) , adventitia.
83
What is the esophagus
The transport tube from the pharynx to the stomach. It is flaccid/collapsed when not transporting food. Muscularis is composed of upper one third skeletal muscle middle one third mixed and lower one third smooth
84
Describe the cardiac sphincter
We closure exception is rabbits and horses. Aids in diaphragm and filling of stomach. Mucous glands on both sides of sphincter to reduce damage by gastric acid
85
What are the predisposing factors of gastroesophageal reflux
Obesity, age, genetics, anesthesia
86
Describe gastroesophageal reflux
Inflammation which lead to ulcers which leads to perforation
87
What are the clinical signs of gastroesophageal reflux
Regurgitation, dysphasia, weight loss, evidence of pain
88
How do you diagnose gastroesophageal reflux
Endoscopy
89
What is the treatment for gastroesophageal reflux
Weight loss, drugs to reduce acid production
90
What is a hiatal hernia
Upper portion of stomach passes through the diaphragm. Either congenital or acquired. Esophagus does not close off when stomach fills with food
91
What is megaesophagus
Food accumulates in esophagus and or is regurgitated. Limited peristalsis, either congenital or acquired
92
What is the treatment for megaesophagus
More liquid diet, feed in the vertical position
93
What are the concerns with mega esophagus
Reduce nutrient intake, pneumonia due to aspirated food
94
What are cats and dogs digestive systems considered to be
Monogastric
95
What are rabbits pigs and horses digestive system is considered to be
Hindgut fermenters
96
What a goat and cows digestive system considered to be
Ruminant
97
What is the monogastric stomach and who has it
A stomach that has a single chamber. Carnivores, omnivores, equines
98
Which regions are the monogastric stomach divided into
Cardia, fungus, body, pyloric antrum, pylorus
99
What is the monogastric stomach lined with
Folds called rugae
100
Where is the lesser omentum located
Is anchored caudal to liver by lesser and greater Omenta
101
What is the Cardia
Opening from the esophagus. Has a cardiac sphincter which reduces reflux
102
What is the fundus
Distensible blind pouch. Expense as more food is swallowed, then changes shape closing off the esophagus
103
What is the body
Distensible middle section. Fundus and body contains numerous glands.
104
What do the gastric glands contain
Parietal cells and chief cells
105
What do parietal cells produce
Produced hydrochloric acid
106
What do chief cells produce
Produce the inactive enzyme pepsinogen
107
What happens when Pepsinogen meets hydrochloric acid
Pepsin is created
108
What did the mucous cells produce
Produce the protective mucus
109
What does the pyloric Antrum do
Grinds up swallowed food, regulates hydrochloric acid secretion in fundus and body
110
What do endocrine tissue in Antrum walls contain
G cells which secretes the hormone gastrin
111
What is the pylorus
Muscular sphincter which regulates the movement of chime from the stomach into the duodenum. Prevents backflow
112
What is pyloric stenosis
Hypertrophy of muscle reduces chime passage and causes vomiting
113
What are the motor functions of the fundus and body
They relax with swallowing of food to allow filling
114
What is the function of the body of the stomach
Contracts to mix food
115
What is the function of the pyloric Antrum
Increases contractions in response to swallowing
116
What is the peristalsis in the stomach and intestine controlled by
Controlled by parasympathetic branch. The Vegas nerve. Trigger is hormones, stretch receptors
117
What is colic in horses
Abdominal pain which is the leading cause of death
118
What are some causes of colic and horses
Stress, rapid diet change, stabling, dehydration, ulcers, parasites
119
The different forms of colic
Gas colic, impaction, spasmodic
120
What are the symptoms of colic
Discomfort, sweating, rolling, wanting to lay down, kicking flank, absence of got sounds
121
What is the treatment for colic and horses
Pain relief, nasogastric intubation and surgery
122
What does the hormone gastrin do
Inhibits muscle activity of the fundus to allow for filling
123
What is the enterogastric reflex
Distention of the intestine lines or increased acidity in the duodenum inhibit stomach contraction. Delays gastric emptying to allow more time for digestion
124
What does the hormone secretin do
Hormone released from duodenum in response to excess stomach acid in small intestine. It can cause fundus to relax and inhibit peristalsis of the body and the antrum of the stomach to slow gastric emptying
125
What does the hormone cholecystokinin do
Hormone released from duodenum in response to large amounts of fats or protein in the duodenum. Decreases gastric contractions to slow emptying
126
What are the different gastric secretions
Pepcinogen, intrinsic factor, hydrochloric acid, mucus, bicarbonate ions, gastrin
127
What is Pepcinogen
Secreted by chief cells. Precursor for the enzyme pepsin which hydrolyzes proteins
128
What is the intrinsic factor
Secreted by parietal cells, required for vitamin B12 absorption by small intestine time in some species. Vitamin B 12 is important to nervous systems development and blood formation
129
What is mucus
Complexes substances, mucin is a protein produced by goblet cells. Provides a coating for the stomach against acidic gastric environment. Must be secreted continuously. Reduction in mucus coat can lead to gastric ulcers
130
What is the bicarbonate ion
Alkalinizes the mucus
131
What is hydrochloric acid
Secreted by parietal cells as separate ions. Low pH inhibits gastrin release. Receptors on parietal cells for gastrin histamine and acetylcholine involved in regard in regulation of H+ and cl- secretion. Selectively blocking one of these receptors decreases the production of stomach acid
132
What are prostaglandins
Local regulators released by various tissues with a variety of actions. Initiation of inflammation , regulate estrous cycle, vasodilation or bronchial dilation. In initiation of inflammation and vasodilation inhibits gastric release. It stimulates the gastric glands to produce the bicarbonate ion. it enhances blood flow to the stomach and aids in repair of mucosa by regulating the activity of Macrophages and mast cells
133
What are NSAIDs
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
134
What do NSAIDs do
Reduces beneficial effects of prostaglandins on gastric mucosa. Can lead to gastritis, gastric ulcers and perforation
135
Describe the ruminant stomach
For chambers and three fore stomachs, reticulum, rumen, omasum. The true stomach is abomasum
136
What is rumination
Repeated regurgitation and swallowing of food. Adaptation for herbivorous diet
137
What is the reticulum
Smallest, most cranial compartment and is separated from the rumen by the ruminoreticular fold. Continuous muscular wall so compartments contract together. The lining is composed of honeycomb folds which increase surface area. Location of hardware disease
138
What is hardware disease
Sharp objects are consumed and become lodged in the reticulum and can pierced through stomach wall can cause pericarditis
139
What is the treatment of hardware disease
Oral administration of large magnets, also given product preventatively. Magnets remain in reticulum for life
140
What is the rumen
Large fermentation vat which is lined with finger like papilla. Series of muscular sacs partially separated by long folds of rumen walls called pillars. Pillars aid in mixing and stirring of rumen contents
141
What is reticuloruminal contractions
Allow partially digested plant food to be regurgitated. Allow built up carbon dioxide or methane gas to be expelled from the Rumen
142
What is the rumen
Site of fermentation. Anaerobic cellular respiration
143
Describe the anaerobic cellular respiration which occurs in the rumen
Microbes Convert cellulose into simple sugars then convert them to VFA. Proteins also digested and converted to VFA or nh3. microbes form proteins and amino acids used by ruminants. Ruminants absorbs VFA in Omasum and metabolizes them back into glucose or fats
144
What is the omasum or abomasum
Reticulorumen contractions move ingested material into the abomasum Muscular organ with many muscular folds. Mechanically breaks food particles down further. Absorbs VFA and water. Removes B+ carbonate ions
145
What is the Abomasum
True stomach which is located ventrally. Functions much the same as a monogastric stomach
146
What is a displaced abomasum
Abomasum is loosely anchored in abdomen. Most common after calving or if it fills with gas.
147
What is the treatment for a displaced abomasum
Surgery or rolling cow on her back
148
Describe newborn ruminant digestion
G.I. track functions primarily as a monogastric digestive system. Rumen and reticular are nonfunctional at birth. Bypassed by Reticular groove carrying material from esophagus to Abomasum. Rate of development of the rumen and reticulum are affected by type of diet. Milk versus grain
149
Describe the small intestine
The site of chemical digestion and nutrient absorption
150
Describe the duodenum
First short segment that leaves the stomach. Separated from the stomach by the pyloric sphincter
151
Describe the jejunum
The longest portion of the small intestine
152
Describe the ileum
Separated from the colon, the large intestine by the ileocecal sphincter
153
Describe the ileocecal sphincter
It regulates the movement of materials from the small intestine into the colon and cecum. Parasympathetic stimulation increases activity
154
Describe the small intestine mucosa
Lined with folds called villi. Epithelial cells, Enterocytes have a microvilli brush border that has a few days of life. It's job is to absorb nutrients. The folds contain blood vessels and lymph lacteals which absorb fats
155
What is an intestinal crypt
Invagination's of mucosa at the base of each villus, containing a variety of cell types
156
What do stem cells do in the intestinal crypts
They produce new cells to replace villi cells, enterocytes
157
What do goblet cells do
Produce and secrete mucus
158
What do Entero endocrine cells do
Produce and secrete hormones such as CCK or secretin
159
What do paneth cells do
Produce antimicrobial peptides part of innate immune system
160
What is acute diarrhea or porcine epidemic diarrhea
Highly contagious viral disease causes destruction of mucosal cells, death of microflora of the large intestine. Due to pathogen and sudden diet change, drug therapy. Example parvovirus, panleukopenia virus
161
What are the two methods of motility in the small intestine
Peristalsis and segmentation.
162
What are peristalsis and segmentation considered
Coordinated contractions of muscularis externa
163
What is diarrhea sometimes due to
Decreased segmentation, not increased peristalsis. Some antidiarrheal drugs act to increase segmentation.
164
What signals the peristalsis and segmentation to start
Reflexes in response to stretching. CCK and PGs may also stimulate intestinal motility
165
Describe small intestine digestion
Small molecules from stomach or absorbed. Electrolytes, water and vitamins. Larger molecules require chemical digestion such as carbohydrates, proteins and peptides and fats
166
What does chemical digestion involve
Enzymes in the lumen of the intestine. And enzymes associated with the microvilli membrane
167
Describe carbohydrate digestion for a polysaccharide
Enzymes released by pancreas. Amylase. Digestion occurs in lumen of duodenum
168
Describe chemical digestion for disaccharides
Enzymes are in microvilli cell. membrane. Monosaccharides transported into Enterocytes then into capillaries. Enzyme production is influenced by age and diet
169
Describe protein digestion in general
In the stomach Pepcid digest some proteins and turns them into smaller polypeptides
170
What are the pancreatic proteases in protein digestion
Polypeptides are turned into smaller polypeptides by five pancreatic proteases, trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, aminopeptidase, carboxypeptidase
171
What is the peptidases in protein digestion
The peptidases and brush border make smaller peptides turn into tripeptides dipeptides And amino acids that are then absorbed by Enterocytes
172
What is the first step of fat digestion
Mechanical breakdown by agitation in pyloric Antrum, breaks down fat globules, triglycerides, into smaller droplets equals emulsification.
173
What is the second step in fat digestion
Bile coats the fat droplets in duodenum to preserve emulsification, and allow them to be water-soluble
174
What is the third step in fat digestion
Pancreatic Lipases turn triglycerides into glycerol, fatty acid, monoglyceride which is glycerol and a fatty acid. Then the small molecules called micelles are absorbed by Enterocytes. Fat soluble vitamins ADEK often incorporated into micelles and absorbed. They then enter lymph lacteals
175
What is the first step of digestion in the large intestine of herbivores
The caecum is a blind sac at ileocecal Junction which is the site of microbial digestion. The colon has some microbial digestion and all species. the rectum leads to the Anus. No enzymes released, all species have large microbial population, most important to nonruminant herbivores such as hindgut fermenters
176
Describe the first step of digestion in the large intestine of carnivores
The caecum is underdeveloped and largely nonfunctional. The colon is simple and tubular. It is the site of peristalsis and segmentation to form and move feces. Microbial flora assist in the production of vitamins.
177
Describe digestion in the large intestine of hindgut fermenters
Nonruminant herbivores such as horses and rabbits and omnivores such as rodents and swine. Large caecum and colon. both are hindgut. Both are the fermentation site similar to fermentation in ruminants.
178
What are bends in tracts called
Flexures. They're areas of potential obstruction. Impaction colic.
179
Describe the rectum
Terminal portion of large intestine. Nervous system control of motility and secretions is similar to that of the colon. Numerous mucus secreting glands lubricate and aid the passage of contents. Sensory receptors detect stretching and stimulates the defecation response
180
Describe the anus
Composed of internal and Extertal muscular sprinters. As was the rectum distends, stretch receptors in the rectum wall cause partial relaxation of the internal sphincter. Perianal trauma can damage muscle and nerves causing fecal incontinence
181
Describe the digestive system functions of the pancreas
Production of pancreatic enzymes such as amylase, proteases and lipaseSecretes bicarbonate into the duodenum which helps neutralize acidity of gastric chime and maintains the pH of the duodenum needed for enzyme function. Produces insulin and glucagon which helps regulate blood glucose levels
182
Describe the digestive functions of the liver
Produces bile which is stored in gallbladder. In rodents and horses there's no gallbladder. Removes and neutralizes toxins that enters the body through the G.I. tract. Stores or metabolizes nutrients absorbed by the G.I. tract. Site of glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis.
183
What is the function of the cardiovascular system
It carries the products of other systems
184
What is a heart in the cardiovascular system
It is the pump
185
What is the vessels in the cardiovascular system
The transport tubes
186
What is blood in the cardiovascular system
Carries nutrients wastes and gases and hormones, defensive proteins and cells
187
Where is the heart located
In the thoracic cavity in the mediastinum. Area between lungs on top of diaphragm
188
What is the mediastinum
The inter-plural space
189
What surrounds the heart
Pericardium. Fibrous outer layer and double serous layer
190
Between which ribs is the heart located in dogs and cats
The third and seventh rib
191
Between which ribs is the heart located for horses and ruminants
Between the second and sixth rib
192
What are the layers of the heart
Pericardium myocardium and endocardium
193
What is endocardium made up of
Simple squamous epithelium
194
What is pericardial effusion
Abnormal accumulation of serous fluid between visceral and Parietal layers. Outer fibrous layer is not elastic, thus heart cannot fully explain during contractions. Pressure is relieved by aspiration of serous fluid.
195
Describe the systemic circulation of blood
Blood flow between heart and body tissues
196
Describe the pulmonary circulation blood flow
Blood flow between heart and lungs
197
Describe blood flow through the body
One-way flow through the heart and blood vessels. Valves in heart and veins prevent backflow
198
What is the function of the coronary vessels
Service the heart tissue, located on external surface. Can be considered part of systemic circulation
199
What is a systole
A cardiac contraction
200
What is a diastole
Cardiac relaxation
201
What are auricles
Flaps of the atria
202
What are coronary vessels
Vessels that service heart tissue
203
What is the interval ventricular sulcus
It separates the ventricles
204
What is the coronary sulcus
Separates atriums
205
Which side is the tricuspid valve for the heart best auscultated on
The right side
206
Describe the hearts location
The apex Curves caudally
207
Describe the blood delivery system
The heart to the artery to the arteriole to the capillary to the venule to the vein to the heart
208
What do arteries do
Carry blood away from the heart. Oxygenated except for pulmonary circulation and umbilical vessels of fetus
209
What to capillaries do
Contact tissue cells. Directly serve cellular needs. Site of diffusion
210
What do veins do
Carry deoxygenated blood toward heart
211
What is the lumen (in blood vessel)
Central blood containing space
212
How many layers does the lumen have
Three layers in the walls of arteries and veins. Smooth muscle, connective tissue and endothelium
213
Where are the capillaries located in the lumen
In the endothelium only
214
Describe arteries
Blood under higher pressure. Thicker walls more elastic fibers and smooth muscle
215
Describe veins
Blood under lower pressure. Valves prevent backflow skeletal muscles help push blood
216
Describe capillaries
Found in all tissue except for cartilage, epithelia, cornea and lens of Eye. ligaments and tendons are poorly vascularized. Provide direct access to almost every cell
217
What are the functions of capillaries
Exchange of gasses, nutrients, waste, hormones, defense.
218
Describe fetal circulation
The placenta is an organ of gas, nutrients, waste, exchange thus blood flow to the kidneys and lungs from G.I. tract is minimal
219
Describe the umbilical cord
Vein carries oxygenated blood flow from placenta to fetus via the ductus venosus. Arteries carry deoxygenated blood from fetus to placenta. Blood entering the right atrium can bypass lungs by the foreman ovale or ductus arteriosus.
220
What is pda
Patent ductus arteriosus. Vessel. Does not close afterbirth causing in adequate oxygenation. Most common congenital heart problem and dogs
221
What are the clinical signs of PDA
Shortness of breath, coughing, general weakness, exercise intolerance
222
How do you diagnose PDA
Auscultation for a murmur or an electro cardiogram
223
What is the treatment for PDA
Surgically close the ductus arteriosus
224
What are the signs of persistent right aortic arch condition
During normal fetal development or changes in the blood vessels. This vascular ring should've disappeared prior to birth it remains constricting the esophagus in the area dorsal to the heart.
225
What is it called when the esophagus is constricted between the ligamentum arteriosum and the aorta
PRAA
226
What is in atrial systole
The contraction of the atria. Blood moves from atria to the ventricles
227
What is a Ventricular systole
The contraction of ventricles. Blood moves from ventricles to arteries
228
What is an atrial diastole
The relaxation of the atria. Atria refills with blood
229
What is a ventricular diastole
The relaxation of ventricles. Ventricles begin to refill with blood
230
What is the lub sound mean
The closing of the AV valves. Mitral valve is best heard on the left side. Tricuspid valve is best heard on the right side
231
What is the dup sound mean
The closing of the semilunar valve. Both pulmonary and aortic valve's best heard on left side
232
How does the heart conduct
Cardiac muscles able to generate its own electrical impulse to signal contraction
233
What does the sinoatrial node do
Initiates heart beat by depolarizing the cells. Depolarization and eventual repolarization continue throughout the heart.
234
What is the order of cardiac conduction
The SA node to the AV node to the AV bundles to the purkinje fibers
235
How do you measure cardiac conduction
Measured by an electrocardiogram
236
Why is there a delay between the depolarization of the SA node and the AV node
So the atrium can fill with blood
237
What does an electrocardiogram do
It measures cardiac electrical activity to depolarization and repolarization
238
What is the cardiac output
Amount of blood that leaves the heart. Cardiac output is equal to heart rate plus stroke volume
239
What is the heart rate dependent on
The rate of SA node depolarization. The cardiac output is influenced by exercise, autonomic nervous system and blood pressure
240
Describe digital pulses in horses
Normally the pulse is weak. If there's a significant problem in the foot such as abscess or laminitis pulse will be stronger due to constriction of vessels in foot
241
What does afferent mean
Sends signal towards an organ
242
What does efferent mean
Sends a signal away from an organ
243
What is mitral valve disease
Mitral valve doesn't close properly. Causes endocarditis or endocardiosis, ruptured cordae tendinae. Endocardiosis is most common in small dogs. Can lead to pulmonary edema and congestive heart failure
244
What is congestive heart failure
Progressive disorder due to problems with blood flow through heart. Blood backs up. Right side causes ascites and left causes pulmonary edema
245
What is one function of the nasopalatine duct
Forms a connection between the oral cavity and the nasal passage. Allows for Flemen response. This duct is found in all mammals
246
Where are rugae found
On the surface of the hard palate and the stomach
247
What is the function of tonsils in mammals
Trap germs that you breathe in
248
What is the dental formula for a cat
31313121
249
How can you easily distinguish the trachea from the esophagus
Esau for guess is a smooth tube. The trachea is made of cartilaginous rings
250
What species of animals is the cardiac sphincter more muscular and thus provides vomiting
Rabbits and horses
251
Name two mesenteric connections of the stomach
Greater and lesser Omenta
252
What type of tissue composes mesentery
Connective tissue
253
What regions of the stomach have gastric glands
The fundus
254
List three cells found in these gastric glands pits
Chief cells, Entero-endocrine cells and parietal cells
255
What does the gastrin hormone do
Triggers the release of HCl and stimulates gastric muscle contractions of the Antrum region
256
Where are the sphincters located
In the pylorus and Cardia region of stomach
257
How is the proximity of the do addendum to the pancreas and liver and gallbladder advantageous
Less time to secrete hormones into the duodenum
258
What causes the velvety appearance of the small intestine
The villi projecting from the mucosal and submucosal layer
259
What are the small lumps in the wall of the ileum called and what is their function
Pyers patches and their function is part of the lymphatic system (malt)
260
What does the common bile duct do
Carries bile from the liver and gallbladder to the small intestine
261
What substances are carried in the pancreatic ducts
Pancreatic enzymes
262
Which part of the colon is more proximal to the cecum
Ascending
263
Between a cat, a rat and a pig which species would you expect to have the largest caecum
The rat due to his diet
264
What are the distinguishing features of the salivary glands
Single layer of simple squamous white cells within
265
What are the distinguishing features of the pancreas
Pancreatic islets
266
What are the distinguishing features of the esophagus
Thick layer of skeletal muscle and a layer of smooth muscle
267
What are the distinguishing features of the stomach Cardia
Fingerlike projections
268
What are the distinguishing features of the duodenum
Branches, tubuloacinar duodenal glands in submucosa. Simple columnar folds
269
Describe the distinguishing features of the jejunum
Cells in columnar enterocytes the purple circle. Think layer of smooth muscle
270
Describe the distinguishing features of the ileum
Peyers patches: purple round things. Folds with simple columnar surrounding
271
Describe the distinguishing features of the colon
Lymphatic nodules, absorptive columnar cells and goblet cells
272
Describe the distinguishing features of teeth
Pulp, Dentin
273
What is the function of the omasum
Absorbs the vfa
274
What is the function of the Rumen
Fermentation vat
275
Lub (s1) is the sound heard during the blank of the blank valves
Closing of the AV valves. Which follows ventricular systole.
276
Dub (s2) is the sound heard during the blank of the blank valves
Closing of the semi lunar valves's. This sound follows ventricular diastole
277
How do you determine the heart rate
Generally you measure the heart rate for 15 seconds use that value to calculate the number of beats per minute
278
What is a pulse
Alternating surges of pressure. Arterial expansion then recoil that occurs with each contraction and relaxation of the left ventricle. A pulse can usually be felt on any superficial artery
279
What Are some arteries you can feel for a pulse
The femoral artery, the dorsal pedal artery, the plantar surface of the foot
280
What does an electro cardiogram measure
An electrocardiogram measures the electrical activity depolarization and repolarization of the heart during one cardiac cycle.
281
What is happening during the P-wave
Atrial depolarization
282
What is happening during the QRS complex
Ventricular depolarization
283
What is happening during the T-wave
Ventricular repolarization
284
In lead two placement the RF is what
Negative
285
In the lead two placement The LH is what
Positive
286
In the lead two placement The LF is what
Neutral
287
What is blood pressure and where is it measured
Blood pressure is defined as the pressure blood exerts against the vessels walls. Generally it is measured in the arteries. Because the heart artery alternatively contracts and relaxes the rhythmic flow of blood in the arteries causes blood pressure to rise and fall during each beat thus you can obtain two values systolic pressure and diastolic pressure. Both reported in millimeters of mercury with the systolic value appearing first.
288
What is systolic pressure
Pressure at the peak of ventricular ejection
289
What is diastolic pressure
Pressure during ventricular relaxation
290
Does the Doppler blood pressure device measure
The Doppler blood pressure device measures systolic pressure only. A cuff is inflated around an animals distal limb or tail so that the inflated pressure is higher than the systolic pressure. The pressure stops circulation in the limb so that no more sounds are heard. Slowly the cuff is deflated. When the sounds of blood flow return this value is recorded as the systolic pressure
291
What does and oscillometric device measure
Measures both the systolic and diastolic pressure
292
How do you determine the proper cuff size for your patient
It should be 40% of the leg width
293
What does the pulse oximetry machine do
Noninvasive method used to determine O2 saturation in the blood. Uses red and infrared light to measure O2 levels because hemoglobin with different levels of oxygenation will reflect different wavelengths of light. Oxygenated hemoglobin absorbs more infrared light and allows more red light to pass through
294
Where is the SA node located
Where the cranial vena cava meets the right atrium
295
Why do semilunar valves lack cordinae tendinae
Because they don't have as much force
296
What action of the heart makes the Lubs sound
Closing of the AV valves
297
What action of the heart makes the dub sound
Closing of the semilunar valve's
298
What is the function of the umbilical arteries
Carry deoxygenated blood from the fetus to the placenta
299
What are two ways fetal blood can bypass the pulmonary circuit
Through the foreman ovale or the ductus arteriosus
300
Which vertebrae group lacks a pulmonary circuit
Fish
301
Why do amphibians have a Pulmocutaneous circuit
They breathe through their skin
302
What is the advantage to having two ventricles
More efficient due to unmixed blood
303
What are the distinguishing features of a vein
Endothelium, blood cells. some smooth muscle
304
What are the distinguishing features of an artery
Lumen, red blood cells, membrane, endothelium. Lots of smooth muscle
305
What are the distinguishing features of a capillary
Capillaries and purple center. Small lumen
306
What are The distinguishing features of cardiac muscle
Striated, branched muscle with a single nucleus
307
What species have carnassial teeth
Cats, dogs, wolves
308
Why would a bears carnassial teeth be different than a cats
It is adapted to its diet and it doesn't need teeth that are as pointy because they eat berries as well as meat
309
What are three things charted during a dental exam
Number of teeth, recession and calculus and gingivitis index
310
What does the line running through the teeth represent
The gum line
311
Why are some boxes on the dental charts are blacked out for furcation
Because those teeth are not multirooted
312
In what species would we find a peg tooth and what is it
Rabbits and it's the tooth behind incisors
313
Are humans brachydont or hypsodont. What does it mean
Brachydont, short crown
314
Name three species that lack incisors
Deer, sheep, goats, cows and snake
315
What animals have incisors that grows continuously throughout their life
Rodents and rabbits
316
Rodent incisors only have enamel on the labial surface. How is this beneficial
Keep tooth strong but allows for good grinding
317
What are three common venipuncture sites in cats
Cephalic veinJugular veinFemoral vein
318
What is the name for the flap of connective tissue that makes up a heart valve
A cusp
319
What are the little cords of connective tissue that attach the free edges of an atrioventricular valve to the walls of the ventricle
Chordinae tendinae
320
How many cusps does the mitral valve have
Two
321
Does the right or left ventricle of the heart have the thicker muscle? Why?
Left ventricle. Because it has to pump oxygenated blood to the entire body not just the lungs
322
How many cusps does the tricuspid valve have
Three
323
Which side of the heart is the tricuspid valve located on
Right side
324
Which valves are known as the semilunar valves
Aortic and pulmonary
325
Which valve is located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery
Pulmonary valve
326
What is the name for the wide cranial end of the heart where arteries and veins enter and exit
Base of the heart
327
What is the name for the caudal pointed end of the heart containing the left ventricle
Apex of the heart
328
Is a blood vessel carrying blood away from the heart an afferent or efferent blood vessel
Efferent
329
Is a blood vessel carrying blood toward the heart an afferent or efferent blood vessel
Afferent
330
Which side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs
The right side
331
Which side of the heart receives blood from the body
Right
332
What vessel carries blood from the lungs to the heart
Pulmonary vein
333
What is the valve between the left ventricle and the largest systemic artery
Aortic valve
334
What is the name of the largest systemic aftery
Aorta
335
Is the vena cava an afferent or efferent blood vessel
Afferent
336
Is the aorta an afferent or efferent blood vessel
Efferent
337
Is the blood in the aorta oxygen rich or oxygen poor
Oxygen rich
338
Is the blood in the vena cava oxygen rich or oxygen poor
Oxygen poor
339
Is the blood in the pulmonary artery oxygen rich or oxygen poor
Oxygen poor
340
What artery supplies blood to the head
Carotid artery
341
What vessel carries blood from the heart to the lungs
Pulmonary vein
342
What is the largest vein in the body
Vena cava
343
What superficial vessels (artery and vein) lay on the medial surface of the inner thigh
Femoral artery and femoral vein
344
What vein runs up the cranial surface of the forelimb below the elbow
Cephalic vein
345
What vein is located just distal to the femoral vein on the hind limb
Saphenous
346
What vein us normally used when drawing up a large volume of blood
Jugular vein
347
What vein curves up the lateral surface of the hind limb just above the hock
Saphenous vein
348
What blood vessels that supply blood to the hind limb does the abdominal aorta divide into
Iliac arteries
349
Is the jugular vein an afferent or efferent blood vessel
Afferent
350
Is the color of arterial blood dark or bright red? Why?
Bright red. Carries large amounts of oxygen
351
Does venous blood spurt or ooze from a damaged vein and why
Ooze. Because it is carrying blood to the heart under low pressure
352
Does arterial blood spurt or ooze from a damaged artery? Why?
Spurt. It is carrying blood from the heart under high pressure and is affected by beating rhythm of the heart. Each spurt represents a contraction of the left ventricle
353
Define aorta
Major artery of the systemic circulation that receives blood from the left ventricle
354
Define aortic arch
After leaving the heart and the cranial direction, the portion which the aorta turns caudally to leave to go to the abdominal cavity
355
Define aortic valve
The valve between the left ventricle and the aorta
356
Define artery
Blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart
357
Define atrioventricular node
A heart valve located between an atrium and ventricle. The right AV it's the tricuspid valve and the left AV is the mitral valve
358
Define the atrium
Heart chamber that receives blood from the large veins. Right atrium receives blood from vena cava and left atrium receives blood from the pulmonary vein
359
Define auricle
Externally visible part of atrium
360
Define Capillary
Smallest blood vessel composed of rolled up tubes of simple squamous epithelium that form extensive networks all over the body. Exchange of nutrients gases and wastes
361
Define caudal vena cava
The large vein that returns blood to the heart from the caudal part of the body
362
Define Cordae tendinae
Find threadlike cords that connect the free edge of the atrioventricular valves to the papillary muscle in the ventricules
363
Define coronary circulation
The blood vessels that carry blood to and from the cells and tissues of the heart
364
Define cranial vena cava
The large vein that returns blood to the heart from the head and forelimbs
365
Define diastole
The relaxation, filled phase of a heart chamber
366
Define endocardium
The innermost layer of tissue that lines the heart chambers
367
Define heart
The muscular pump that pumps blood cells and tissues of the body
368
Define inter-atrial septum
The wall of myocardium that separates the left and right atria of the heart
369
Define interventricular groove
The fat filled groove on the outside of the heart that corresponds to the location of the interventricular septum
370
Define interventricular septum
The walls of myocardium that separates the left and right ventricles of the heart
371
Defined mediastinum
The space to the thorax between the lungs that contains the trachea, esophagus, heart, nerves, lymphatic vessels and major blood vessels
372
Define mitral valve
The valve between the left atrium and left ventricle
373
Define moderator band
Band of connective tissue in the right ventricle that provides extra support for the ventricle plus prevents it from expanding
374
Defined myocardium
Thick muscular layer of the heart wall
375
Define pericardial sac
The outermost layer of the pericardium that surrounds the heart
376
Define pericardium
Protective outer layer covering the heart
377
Define pulmonary circulation
The blood circulating to the lungs
378
Define pulmonary valve
The valve between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery also known as the pulmonary valve
379
Define pulmonary vessels
Blood vessels that carry blood to and from the lungs
380
Define renal artery and vein
Blood vessels that carry blood to and from the kidneys
381
Define sinoatrial node
Natural pacemaker of the heart
382
Define semilunar valve's
Another name for the pulmonary and aortic valve's
383
Define systemic circulation
The blood circulation to and from all parts of the body except for the lungs
384
Define Systole
The contract and pumping phase of the heart chamber
385
Define tricuspid valve
The valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle
386
Define vein
A blood vessel that carries blood towards the heart
387
Define ventricle
The heart chamber that pumps blood out through the large arteries the left ventricle pumps blood out through the aorta and the right ventricle pumps blood through the pulmonary artery
388
What is the Cardia and what does it do
It is the opening from the esophagus. Has a cardiac sphincter which helps reduce reflux
389
What is the Antrum and what is it do
It grinds up swallowed food and also regulates HCL secretion in fundus and body
390
What is the fundus and what is it do
The distensible blind poach which expands as more food is swallowed, then changes shape to close off esophagus
391
What is the body and what is it do
Distensible middle section containing numerous gastric glands
392
What is the pylorus and what is it do
Muscular sphincter which regulates the movement of chime from the stomach and the duodenum
393
What is the function of the reticulum
Most cranial compartment, continuous muscular wall so compartments contract together
394
What is the function of the omasum
Muscular organ that mechanically breaks food down
395
What is the function of the rumen
Site of fermentation and anaerobic cellular respiration. Fermentation vat lined with finger like papilla
396
What is the function of the abomasum
The true stomach that functions like a monogastric stomach
397
Explain the process of emulsification. How do bile acids from the liver aid in fat digestion
Agitation in pyloric Antrum grinds fat globules into small droplets.bile coats fat droplets in duodenum. Lipases breakdown triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids
398
What are the building blocks of molecules derived from the digestion of fat
Glycerol, fatty acid, micelles and fat-soluble vitamins
399
Describe three functions of the liver
Produce bile acid that is stored in gallbladder. Remove and neutralize toxins that enter the body through the G.I. tract. Stores and metabolizes nutrients absorbed by the G.I. tract
400
Describe the difference between a herbivore, carnivore, omnivore
A developed caecum versus a nonfunctional caecum
401
What are the five key functions of the gastrointestinal tract
Absorption, excretion, mastication, prehension, ingestion
402
Which part of the ruminant digestive system most closely resembles the monogastric stomach
The abomasum
403
What are the components of the small intestine
The duodenum, jejunum, ileum
404
What are the components of the large intestine
Caecum, colon, rectum, anus
405
Which digestive related organ has both exocrine and endocrine function
The pancreas
406
What is an inflammation of the gingiva called
Gingivitis
407
What are the muscular folds that divide the sacs of the rumen called
Rumenoreticular folds
408
What does the P-wave signify in the contractions of the heart
Depolarization of atria in response to SA node
409
What does the PR interval represent in the contractions of the heart
Delay of the AV node to allow filling the ventricles
410
What does the QRS complex signify in the contractions of the heart
Depolarization of ventricles, triggers pumping contractions
411
What is the ST segment signify in the contractions of the heart
The beginning of ventricle repolarization
412
What does the T-wave signify and the contractions of the heart
Ventricular repolarization
413
Trace blood through the systemic circulation
Pulmonary veins➡️left atrium➡️bicuspid valve➡️left ventricle ➡️aortic semilunar valve➡️aorta➡️arteries➡️arterials➡️capillaries➡️venules➡️caudal/cranial vena cava➡️right atrium
414
Trace the blood through the pulmonary circulation
Right atrium➡️tricuspid valve➡️right ventricle➡️pulmonary semilunar valve ➡️pulmonary artery➡️lungs➡️systemic circulation
415
What is the dental formula for a dog
31423143
416
What is the dental formula for a horse
31433133
417
What is the dental formula for a pig
31433143
418
What is the dental formula for a cow
00333133
419
Where does incisor naming start
1
420
Where does canine naming start
4
421
Where does premolar naming start
5-8
422
Where does molar naming start
9-11
423
What is blood
Connective tissue with a plasma matrix. The protein fibers are only visible when the blood clots.
424
What is blood mostly composed of
Rbc, wbc and platelets.
425
What are three functions of blood
TransportRegulation (body temp, water balance, ph balance)Defense (against pathogens, blood clotting)
426
What is plasma composed of
Water, proteins and other solutes
427
What are the formed elements composed of
Platelets, leukocytes and erythrocytes
428
Describe plasma
Fluid portion with dissolved substances: plasma proteins (albumin, globulins, clotting factors) and gases, nutrients, waste and hormones
429
What is % of blood volume dependant on
Species and amount of hydration. Cats have smaller rbc than dogs and a higher % of plasma in blood. Hemoconcentration vs. hemodilution
430
What is the normal yellow color in plasma due to
Bilirubin
431
Why can blood plasma appear cloudy
Due to postprandial lipemia. (Fat in blood after eating)
432
How do you avoid postprandial lipemia
Fast before taking a blood sample
433
What is the difference between serum and plasma
Serum is the same as plasma except it lacks clotting factors
434
What does supernatant mean
Serum
435
What is the intrinsic blood coagulation pathway
Surface contactHageman factor(Active) hageman factorChristmas factor(Active) christmas factor Stable factorPlatelet membranePhospholipidCalcium ions(Active) stable factorP.M.PCalcium ions
436
Describe the extrinsic blood coagulation pathway
Tissue damageTissue factor: stable factorStable factor Platelet membrane phospholipid Calcium ions
437
Describe the common coagulation pathway
V, platelet membrane, phospholipidProthrombinThrombinFibrin stabilizing factor OR fibrogenFibrinStable fibrin clot
438
What is an anticoagulant
Used to prevent blood clotting (coagulation) in vitro or in vivo. Substance blocks one of clotting factors in pathway
439
What does edta coagulation do
Binds ca++, used in lab (lavender top)
440
What does heparin anticoagulant do
Naturally occurring. Used to prevent thrombosis and embolism
441
What does warfarin anticoagulant do
In 1940: used as rat poisonIn 1950: used medicinally as an oral anticoagulant
442
What are the three formed elements in blood
ErythrocytesLeukocytes Thrombocytes
443
How much percent of blood does plasma compose
55% of blood
444
What is a Buffy coat and what is it part of
It is leukocytes and thrombocytes, it's part of the formed elements and its it greater than 1% of whole blood
445
What is an erythrocyte and what is it part of
It is red blood cells and it composed 45% of whole blood
446
Wbc are considered what
Complete cells
447
Describe the physiology of a rbc
Have no nuclei or most other organelles
448
What are platelets considered
Cell fragments
449
How long do formed elements last in blood
Survive in bloodstream for a few days with the exception of wbc
450
Where do blood cells originate
Originate in red bone marrow and do not divide (exception: some wbc)
451
What is hematopoiesis
The formation of blood cells. It is a continual process: stem cells formed element cells
452
How long does it take a stem cell to turn into a rbc
15 days
453
How long do red blood cells survive
100-120 days
454
What is step 3 in the stem cell conversion to rbc
Proerythroblast turns into basophilic erythroblast
455
What is the 4th step in the conversion from stem cells to rbc
From a basophilic erythroblast to polychromatic erythroblast.
456
What is the 7th step of the conversion from stem cell to rbc
From orthochromatic erythroblast to reticulocyte
457
Describe phase 1 of the development pathway
Ribosome synthesis
458
What is phase 2 of the development pathway
Hemoglobin accumulation
459
What is phase 3 in the development pathway
Ejection of nucleus
460
What is polychromasia
Lavender cytoplasm. Hemoglobin production begins
461
What does the erythropoietin hormone
Stimulates erythropoiesis, always have a small amount in blood. High rbc or O2 levels depress production. Released by kidneys in response to hypoxia
462
What are the causes of hypoxia
Decreased rbc numbers due to hemorrhage or increase destruction. Insufficient hemoglobin per rbc (iron deficiency) or reduced availability of o2 (high altitudes)
463
In early fetus, what organs are responsible for hematopoiesis
Liver and spleen
464
When fetus ages, what becomes more prominent
Red bone marrow
465
As an animal ages what happens to red bone marrow
Red bone marrow is reduced to epiphyses and replaced by yellow bone marrow in diaphyses
466
What does anucleation mean in terms of erythrocytes
Making more space for hemoglobin
467
What are the benefits of having biconcave disks (erythrocytes)
Higher surface area to transport gases across membrane. Flexible; can squeeze through small capillaries
468
What type of respiration do erythrocytes have
Anaerobic
469
Do erythrocytes have mitochondria ?
No
470
Do erythrocytes have a nucleus?
Only in non mammalian species
471
What do red blood cell size and color vary on
Species
472
How much of the cell does hemoglobin compose
35%
473
What is hemoglobin composed of
Globular proteins (4 polypeptides) + heme groups (containing iron )
474
How many O2 can each hemoglobin carry
4 O2
475
How many hemoglobin. Do we have in our body
250 million hb/rbc
476
Animals with smaller cells have
More rbc
477
What are the three types of hemoglobin
Embryonic hemoglobin (HBe)Fetal hemoglobin (HbF)Adult hemoglobin (Hb)
478
What's the difference between fetal hemoglobin and adult hemoglobin.
Fetal has a higher affinity to O2 than adult Hb. Very good in low O2 environment
479
Describe O2 loading in lungs
Produces oxyhemoglobulin (ruby red)Hb+O2 ➡️ HbO2
480
Describe O2 unloading in tissues
Produces deoxyhemoglobin or empty hemoglobin (dark red)Hb+o2➡️HbO2
481
Describe CO2 loading in tissues
20% of CO2 in blood binds to HbHb + CO2 ➡️ HbCO2
482
What does the lifespan of red blood cells depend on
Varies by species. Large animals have longer living rbc
483
What does senesce mean
Age
484
As red blood cells age what happens
Become rounder with less surface area and get trapped in spleen
485
What happens to old rbc when they get trapped in the spleen
Most are phagocytized by macrophages (wbc) in spleen, some destroyed in blood vessels.
486
What happens when rbc die
Replaced by young cells from red bone marrow
487
What happens to globins when they're separated from heme
Globins are metabolized into amino acids which are sent to liver for production of new proteins
488
What happens to iron when it's Seperated from heme and globin
Iron salvaged for reuse; sent to red bone marrow
489
What happens to heme when it's Seperated from globin
Heme is degraded to yellow pigment called bilirubin. Sent to liver to be used in bile which is secreted into the small intestine
490
What happens if liver is unable to process all the bilirubin,
it can collect in the tissues which is jaundice
491
What is anemia ?
Blood has abnormally low O2 carrying capacity. Low O2 levels cannot support metabolism.
492
What are the symptoms of anemia
Fatigue, pallor
493
What is the cause of anemia
Blood loss, decreased erythropoiesis, decreased hemoglobin production
494
What is polycythemia
Abnormally high number of rbc
495
What are the three types of polycythemia
Relative polycythemiaCompensatory polycythemia Polycythemia ruba Vera
496
Define relative polycythemia
Hemoconcentration (loss of plasma) due to dehydration
497
Define compensatory polycythemia
Increased erythropoiesis due to hypoxia
498
Define polycythemia ruba Vera
Rare idiopathic bone marrow disorder
499
How do you determine amount of cells in blood
❤️Manually count with the hematocytometer slide❤️Hematocrit or packed cell volume
500
What does a hematocrit do
Calculate % of rbc (+ Buffy coat plasma)
