PathoHisto Flashcards

invasive breast carcinoma
- Infiltrative growth- not well circumscribed.
- Desmoplasia.
- No myoepithelial cells seen in the tumorous glands= malignancy.
- The Nottingham histologic score is a scoring system to assess the grade, based on 3 different sub-scores (each given a grade from 1-3): structure (how many tumor cells form glands) + cytomorphology (nuclear atypia, polymorphism) + mitotic rate. Minimal grade:3, maximal: 9.
- Cytomorphology: 1. Carcinoma NST (Ductal): variable atypia. 2. Lobular: small, round tumor cells, usually slight/moderate polymorphism.
- Tumor cells form tubules, cribriform structures, nests and cords.
- In this slide- we can also see DCIS = Ductal carcinoma In Situ.

Basal cell carcinoma, KROMPECHER TUMOR - SKIN
Most common skin malignancy. Semi malignant = Invasive but no distant metastasis. Peripheral Palisading (parallel organisation of nuclei on nest’s periphery. May contain melanin, surface often ulcerated, artifact reaction due to shrinkage of cells. May cause local bone destruction.

Adrenocortical nodular hyperplasia
How can we see this is the Adrenal gland? It has an adipose capsule and cortex and medulla. The cortex is composed of Zona glomerulosa, Zona fasciculata, Zona reticularis, but here it is unorganized due to hyperplasia. Hyperplasia is typical for the prostate gland, and can also occur in uterus (pregnancy) and mammillary glands.
Kinds of Hyperplasia:
- Diffuse- thyroid gland.
- Nodular- parenchymal organs.
- Polyps- mucosal.

thyroid follicular adenoma - THYROID
Complete fibrous capsule, Most common benign tumour of thyroid. Follicular structures. Low colloid content. Benign cytomorphology : Slight atypia/polymorphism can occur, but it does not indicate malignancy. Cytological evaluation of the cells in the case of thyroid follicular neoplasm cannot indicate whether the tumor is malignant or bening.
Criteria of malignancy:
a) infiltration of the capsule
b) vascular invasion.

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma- extra nodal - stomach
Extra nodal disease refers to lymphomatous infiltration of anatomic sites other than the lymph nodes. Almost any organ can be affected by lymphoma, with the most common extra nodal sites of involvement being the stomach, spleen, Waldeyer ring, central nervous system, lung, bone, and skin.
This is a MALT lymphoma in the stomach, also DLBCL type. This tumor is related to H.Pylori infection. The stomach can be recognized via its normal gastric mucosa part, in the small part where it stayed intact. Most of the mucosal surface looks ulcerated. The tumor infiltrates all the way through the muscularis externa layer. Diffuse growth pattern in the stomach wall (DDG: diffuse type gastric cancer). The tumor cells show atypia characteristics (large, not cohesive, have large nucleoli) and look like blasts

Extracellular protein accumulation in the Liver- Amyloidosis
To confirm the presence of Amyloid, we use Congo red stain + Polarization microscope = apple green color.
- The eosinophilic extracellular substance that surrounds the more basophilic cells (hepatocytes) is the Amyloid.
- Amyloidosis is caused by long term inflammation, hematogenic disorder, cancer, etc.

fibroepithelial tumors - Skin
Both tumors here are benign, as the ducts are composed of 2 layers: intraluminal layer and an outer myoepithelial (clear cytoplasm) layer. If the myoepithelial layer disappears = malignancy.
• Fibroadenoma is the most common benign tumor of the breast (light pink). It is estrogen dependant, it has a fibrous troma + benign ductal epithelial proliferation.
Phyllodes tumor is rare (purple). It has a leaf like pattern, classified according to its mitotic rate, atypia of the stroma and stroma overgrowth. Hypercellular stroma with the same epithelium as in the fibroadenoma/

Thyroid papillary carcinoma
Most common form of thyroid cancer, most often occurs in young adults (women).
- Good prognosis.
- Lymphogenic metastasis (cervical LN) – can develop early on, but can be treated surgically.
- Infiltrative growth.
- Contains papillary and follicular architecture in variable proportions.
- Branching papillae, having a fibrovascular stalk.
- Desmoplasia.
- Characteristic cytomorphology: special nuclei:
a) Orphan Annie eye (=chromatin clearing)
b) Nuclear grooves (=coffee bean nuclei)
c) intranuclear cytoplasmic inclusions (ICI) Nuclei are overlaping, arranged with long axes in parallel alignment.
• Psammoma body (laminated concentrically micro calcification in the stroma) may be seen.

Liver Metastatic adenocarcinoma
Portal triads and hepatocytes can be seen. Fatty degeneration, Cholestasis (bile pigment in the cytoplasm). Basophilic area= tumor. It is well circumscribed = characteristic for metastases. Physiological liver does not contain glands. Zooming in the glands, we see malignant neoplastic cellular atypia = ADENOCARCINOMA. The primary tumor could be colorectal/ gastric/ breast/ lung for example.

Serous cyst adenofibroma - UTERUS
Most common ovarian tumour, benign tumour is composed of cysts and stroma. The normal epithelial lining of the fallopian tube is composed of 3 cell types: ciliated, secretory and Peg cells. Cysts covered by single layer of tall, columnar, ciliated cells resembling normal tubal epithelium

Endometrial typical hyperplasia
Thick endometrium (endometrium/myometrium ratio↑).
- Glands are dilated, cystic. The glands have pseudostratified epithelial lining, which mimics proliferative endometrium.
- Gland/stroma ratio is maintained- typical hyperplasia. (if it wasn’t maintained, and also the cells were atypical- then it would be called atypical).
- Endometrial hyperplasia occurs due to increased level of estrogen (obese) or low amount of progesterone (polycystic ovary disease)

Necrosis of palatine tonsils
How do we know it is a tonsil?
- Stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium
- Crypts, lymph nodules can be identified
- Lymphatic tissue - lymphocytes nucleus is basophilic, and has invisible cytoplasm.
Diagnosis: This is a coagulative necrosis. We can see a homogenous loss of organization; the outline of the cell is seen and the nucleus is absent.

active chronic gastritis
This is a specimen from a biopsy.
- There are no parietal or chief cells => this is the antrum of the stomach.
- Surface epithelium is ok, so no erosion or ulcer.
- In the lamina propria- many lymphocytes, plasma cells and eosinophils are seen. These are mainly cells of chronic inflammation. Also, neutrophils are seen which are the acute/active component of this inflammatory reaction.
- There is also an Intestinal metaplasia seen (goblet cells which are not usually found in the stomach). This happens due to the irritation.
- On macroscopy has Petechia hyperemic area, mostly the antrum is affected.
- Can be caused by over use of Aspirin or steroids.
- Counter measures: Proton pump inhibitors.
- Lack of vitamin b12 absorption due to lack of intrinsic factor.
- One of the agents that causes gastritis is helicobacter pylori causing chronic gastritis found on the surface of the mucosa, rod like bacteria. Can be seen with immunohistochemically reaction.

Invasive squamous cell carcinoma of the Cervix
The normal cervical epithelium is not present here. The basement membrane of the epithelium was destroyed and hence this tumor is invasive. The tumor is also seen inside lymphatic vessels. Desmoplasia can be seen (Tumor induced stromal reaction characterized by collagen rich connective tissue). Broad epithelium polymorphism. Cells are not round, have prominent nucleoli. The epithelium is anaplastic (is a condition of cells with poor cellular differentiaton, losing the morphological characteristics of mature cells and their orientation with respect to each other and to endothelial cells). This is a not well differentiated lesion (about grade 3)- aggressive tumor. Chronic inflammation infiltrate can be seen (lymphocytes).

Granulation tissue
Granulation tissue is a new connective tissue with microscopic blood vessels that are formed on the surface of a wound during healing process. Characterization of granulation tissue:
- Rich vascularization (angiogenesis, cuboidal endothelial cells).
- Edematous interstitium, with fibroblasts (the main cells in the tissue, which will produce the collagen for the creation of a scar tissue).
- Chronic inflammatory cell infiltrate (macrophages, lymphocytes), in recent granulation tissue granulocytes as well. Their role is to phagocytose old or damaged tissues and protect the healing tissue from another infection.

IRDS- infantile respiratory distress syndrome.
This is the lung of a pre-term baby. The alveoli are not completely open. This is an autopsy case. Hyaline membranes (protein rich exudate) are seen lining the alveoli. This is a new-born disease due to the lack of surfactant. Corticosteroids can be given to the mother to stimulate production of surfactant in the fetus.

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma- nodal DLBCL - Lymph Node
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma can be due to neoplastic proliferation of either B or T cell (less common). It can be classified according to the B-cell size. 1. Small B-cells: follicular/mantle/marginal according to the regions of the secondary lymphatic follicles. 2. Intermediate B-cells: Burkitt lymphoma, associated with EBV. 3. Large B-cells: diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL)- most common, and seen in this slide. DLBCL is a diffuse large B-cell proliferation, present in late adulthood (>50) as an enlarging lymph node or an extra nodal mass. Diffuse growth pattern can be seen – the basic structure of the lymph node disappears (no distinct follicles seen). Centroblast, immunoblast-like tumor cells (ratio of tumor cells >90%) can be seen, that are large with prominent nucleoli. Many mitotic figures à high proliferation.

Liquefactive necrosis of the brain
How do we know it is the brain? Fibrillar network with low cellularity (Neurons, axons, glial cells can be seen).
Diagnosis: This is a liquefactive necrosis. It is light eosinophilic and has irregular shape, we can see the loss of nuclei. The tissue is no longer compact, not homogenous, much paler. This is different from coagulative necrosis because we cannot see the cell outlines. This is a necrotic tissue that becomes liquified by enzymatic lysis of cells and proteins.

nodular melanoma - SKIN Main types of melanoma: • SSM (most common) =superficial spreading melanoma= epidermal + dermal components. • Lentigo maligna: in situ melanoma of sun exposed skin. • Nodular melanoma (worst prognosis) = only dermal component. • Acral lentiginosus melanoma
Malignant tumor of melanocytes. Distant metastases can occur anywhere, liver usually affected.
- Mostly arises de novo. Mostly arises in the skin, other sites of origin include oral and anogenital mucosal surfaces, esophagus, and can also be intraocular and conjunctival.
- Atypical cells, variable cytomorphology (epithelioid/spindle cells), atypical mitoses.
- Asymmetric tumor with ulceration.
- Tumor cells look similar in the superficial and deeper layers, they do not show signs of maturation.
- Solar elastosis in dermis- an accumulation of abnormal elastin, which occurs as a result of the cumulative effects of prolonged and excessive sun exposure, a process known as photoaging. •

alcoholic hepatitis
- Autopsy case.
- Fatty liver=yellowish liver parenchyma. In chronic cases may cause fibrosis or cirrhosis=grayish, firm liver parenchyma.
- Pattern of inflammation: Granulocytic infiltration between hepatocytes (not in portal spaces). Necrotic hepatocyte can be surrounded by granulocytes.
- Mallory-Denk body: hyaline deposits (eosinophilic) in hepatocyte’s cytoplasm (cytoskeletal degradation). These can be found as they are usually surrounded by neutrophils. These are not necessarily specific to alcoholic hepatitis.
- Fatty degeneration =fatty vacuoles in hepatocyte’s cytoplasm. • Congestion can also be seen here- sinusoids engorged with blood. • Centrilobular fibrosis (around central veins).
- Liver cell necrosis results fibrosis→ end stage=cirrhosis

Squamous cell carcinoma- larynx
We can see hyaline cartilage, seromucous glands, and stratified squamous non keratinized epithelium. The tumor is seen infiltrating= malignant. Can also be seen in lymph vessels. We can also see cellular atypia (cellular and nuclear polymorphism, larger and euchromatic nuclei, atypical mitotic figures). The tumor has areas that are well differentiated, and areas that are poorly differentiated. keratin pearls can be seen (keratin production of tumor cells because of their epithelial origin). Surrounding the tumor nest, we can see a vast connective tissue stroma= Desmoplasia. Etiology: smoking, alcohol intake (HPV detected in small % of cases).

signet cell carcinoma - Stomach
This is the body of the stomach. See the large gastric glands and parietal cells.
- There is no tumor mass. The tumor cells are very diffuse.
- The tumor cells are called signet ring cells and produce mucin (hence are positive for PAS staining).
- This tumor can be revealed by endoscopy. The tumor is not distinctively seen, but the thickness of the wall of the stomach can be measured. The thickening of the wall is called lintis plastica.
- This type of tumor occurs mainly stomach, but occasionally may occur in other GI organs, prostate, urinary bladder, breast.
- Usually advanced stage at the time of the diagnosis.
- Pas staining show signet ring cells all over the layer up to the serosa.

peptic ulcer
This is the body of the stomach. See the large gastric glands and chief cells.
- This is an ulcer and not an erosion as the lesion reaches the submucosa.
- Intestinal metaplasia can be seen (goblet cells which are not usually found in the stomach). This happens due to the irritation.
- Peptic ulcer layers (from top):
- Necrosis with granulocytes and fibrin- looks eosinophilic.
- Granulation tissue- looks pale because it is edematous. This is edematous because the newly formed vessels of the granulation tissue are leaky.
- Scar tissue- connective tissue rich in collagen. In this slide it is not really seen, because the healing is not advanced enough.
- An ulcer can be acute (mostly in the stomach) or chronic (mostly in the duodenum or gastric antrum). The causes of an acute ulcer are hyperacidity, shock, stress. The causes of a chronic one are H.pylori, NSAID, smoking or alcohol.
- The consequences of an ulcer can be: Hemorrhage, perforation, scar formation.

foreign body granuloma- anorectal region
There is a transition between stratified squamous keratinized epithelium (typical to the skin) and simple columnar colonic mucosa. So, this is either a stoma (an artificial permanent opening especially in the abdominal wall made in surgical procedure) or the anorectal transition.
- This is a subtype of chronic inflammation.
- Giant cells can be seen inside granulomas, with foreign material embedded in them (from stitches of a previous operation).
- Macrophages are stimulated by IFN-gamma (secreted by Th1) to become epithelioid histiocytes and giant cells.
- This is a surgical specimen (we can see the black ink).





































































