Patho

Question 1

Patho of pulmonary odema

Answer 1

It is a fluid build-up in the lungs from osmotic pressure in the pulmonary circulatory system. It can be caused by an ineffective problem such as Left ventricle dysfunction moving into space .cardiogenic (or hydrostatic) pulmonary edema from, as the name implies, an elevated pulmonary capillary pressure from left-sided heart failure;
S/S

Question 2

Patho of Peripheral odema

Answer 2

Related to R side heart issue as ineffective build off of blood allows backflow into the veins past the valves and builds the legs with pitting edema. Secondary to DVT, AF , Hypertension, urine build up

Question 3

Patho of aggregation

Answer 3

The formation of recruitment cells such as platelets and ADP to form a clot .Together they form shape change and degranulation releasing ADP. ADP aggregates and recruits more platelets to form.

Question 4

Patho of Insulin

Answer 4

Insulin is released as an increasing amount of glucose is detected receptor . From there it rises in K+ and depolarises calcium release of transport glucose and insulin release

Question 5

Patho of Asthma

Answer 5

a COPD condition. allergen enters and met by dendrite cell. T cell receptors recognize and promotes neutrophils and eosinophils to the allergen. B cells bring IGE cells attaching itself to the allergen so mast cells can release mediators such as histamine and leukotrienes. Histamine stimulates acetylcholine on the vagus nerve. is a cause of narrowing of airway and increase of bronchiole mucus plug

Question 6

Regulation of vomiting

Answer 6

4 zones of triggers
Cerebal-anxiety and pain
chemotrigger- mu, kappa
Vagus -GIT
Vestibular system-

Question 7

Patho of Platelete phospholipids activation

Answer 7

Phospholipids use phospholipase A2to produce arachnoid acid-forming leukotrienes and cycloxygenase . This creates ADP. Thrombin, Thromboxane

Question 8

Patho of epilepsy

Answer 8

An imbalance between glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid neurotransmitter, systems can lead to hyperexcitability.

Question 9

Patho of Angina

Answer 9

It is the imbalance between nutrients of the heart such as too much/less oxygen disrupting its function.
Stable is caused by exercise with a stable plaque with normal ECG
Unstable is at rest , ruptured or inflamed plaque and inverted T wave sometimes

Question 10

Patho of Coagulation

Answer 10

Clotting Faze of platelets liquid to gel to stop the rupture bleed. Repair stage.
intrinsic - 12-11-9-10-2 where thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin creating a mesh holding platelets into a clot.
extrinsic starts at 10

Question 11

Patho of Atherosclerosis

Answer 11

LDL attaches to the lining of the artery. The LDL oxides in the lining of the cell and macrophages engulf and swells becoming foam cells turning it into a fatty streak. Collagen hardens the plaque

Question 12

Patho and types of ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke

Answer 12

Embolic -clot block of an artery
Thrombotic -Cholesterol plaque stick to inner wall allowing build-up.
intracranial- Pia matter
Subarachnoid -The main symptom is a sudden, severe headache. layer between brain and layer of protection

Question 13

Patho of emphysema

Answer 13

Emphysema is a pathologic diagnosis defined by permanent destruction of airspaces distal to the terminal bronchioles. This leads to a dramatic decline in the alveolar surface area available for gas exchange. Furthermore, loss of alveoli leads to airflow limitation by 2 mechanisms. First, loss of the alveolar walls results in a decrease in elastic recoil, which leads to airflow limitation. Second, the loss of the alveolar supporting structure leads to airway narrowing, which further limits airflow. Caused by smoking and air pollution

Question 14

Path of Chronic Bronchitis

Answer 14

Inflammation of the central airways is a prominent feature in subjects with chronic bronchitis. The pathology of chronic bronchitis includes an inflammatory cell infiltrate in the airway wall and a neutrophil influx into the airway lumen. The molecular events that produce the inflammation-causing mucus hypersecretion The inflammatory cell recruitment to the airways likely involve chemotactic agents derived not only from tissue fluid. synthesize neutrophils and lymphocytes.

Question 15

Patho of pneumonia

Answer 15

pneumonia is an umbrella term for a group of syndromes caused by a variety of organisms. Bacteria, fungal, and viral when body function detects it releases systemic action to defeat the orgasms such as rise in temp, mucus production, and sweating.

Question 16

Patho of Croup

Answer 16

Croup causes swelling of the larynx, trachea, and large bronchi due to the infiltration of white blood cells. Swelling results in partial airway obstruction which, when significant, results in dramatically increased work of breathing, and the characteristic turbulent, noisy airflow known as stridor due to the infiltration of white blood cells. The parainfluenza virus typically causes croup, but a bacterial infection can also cause it.

Question 17

Patho of Bronchilitis

Answer 17

Bronchiolitis is inflammation of the bronchioles usually caused by an acute viral illness. It is the most common lower respiratory tract infection in children younger than 2 years of age. Bronchiolitis occurs as a result of the inflammation of the lining of the epithelial cells of the small airways in the lungs causing mucus production, inflammation, and cellular necrosis of those cells. It is the inflammation of these cells that can obstruct the airway and ultimately result in wheezing.

Question 18

Patho of Pertussis

Answer 18

Whooping cough, also known as pertussis or the 100-day cough, is a highly contagious bacterial disease. The initial symptoms are usually similar to those of the common cold with a runny nose, fever, and mild cough, but these are followed by weeks of severe coughing fits.compromises the small airways (especially those of infants) and predisposes the affected individual to atelectasis, cough, cyanosis, and pneumonia.
kills cilicac cells releases toxins and reduce inflammatory response in the bronchioles. causing a prolonged response.

Question 19

Patho of ACS

Answer 19

decreased blood flow to part of heart musculature which is usually secondary to plaque rupture and formation of thrombus. Sometimes ACS can be secondary to vasospasm with or without underlying atherosclerosis. The result is decreased blood flow to a part of heart musculature resulting first in ischemia and then infarction of that part of the heart.

Question 20

Path of Cardiogenic

Answer 20

Cardiogenic shock is characterized by inadequate tissue perfusion due to cardiac dysfunction, and it is often caused by acute myocardial infarction. ischemia causes myocardial dysfunction Myocardial stunning. Low perfusion pressures with global ischemia lead to multiorgan dysfunction. E.g Hypotension+ tachycardia

Question 21

Patho of Billary collic and cholecystitis

Answer 21

Billary cholic - stone stopping passage and stuck in the gall bladder
Cholecystitis -occurs when the gall bladder becomes inflamed. Obstruction usually occurs in the cystic duct. has fever

• Signs and Symptoms of pain under the rib cage  Description. Murphy's sign is elicited in patients with acute cholecystitis by asking the patient to take in and hold a deep breath while palpating the right subcostal area.
• Shoulder tip pain

Question 22

Patho of pancreatitis

Answer 22

obstruction( gall stones, alcohol use ) of pancreatic secretory transport and by an activation of pancreatic enzymes. In biliary acute pancreatitis, outflow obstruction with pancreatic duct hypertension and a toxic effect of bile salts contribute to disruption of pancreatic ductules, with subsequent loss of extracellular compartmentation. Alcohol induces functional alterations of plasma membranes and alters the balance between proteolytic enzymes and protease inhibitors, thus triggering enzyme activation, autodigestion and cell destruction.

Question 23

Patho of upper/lower GI

Answer 23

Oesophageal varices -Develop through portal hypertension and dilates veins causing to rupture causing bleeds. Varices are pooling of blood . The veins drain blood, although if bleeding endo tube can see if bleeding occure
Mallory Weiss syndrome
A tears end of oesophagus that are superficial caused by alcohol and smoking , chronic vomit and straining .
Erosive gastric erosions in the stomach of the mucus defence. Bleed can be present and treated by H2 blocked and caused from alcohol ,stress and NSAIDS
Mass lesions are cancer or build up of mass in the stomach that burst
Angiodysplasia are vascular abnormality causes colon that elastic is dilated are weak .
Ulcers are common and are erosion of mucus membrane, risk factors are excess acid secretion , h pyolri infection and NSAID. Causing bleeding or narrowing of the cavity .

Lower GI
Diverticular usually in the descending colon causing bleeding and constipation
Angiodysplasia weak vascular in the colon
Colitis
• ischemic affects blood flow to colon and reduces circulation of areas .
• Inflammortory have ulcers in lower colon .
• Infectious caused by bacteria and effects colon.

Question 24

Patho of UTI

Answer 24

• Infection of urinary tract
  
  • Poor hygiene , surgery ,urine compromise , autoimmune disease Pyelonephritis is upper kidney infection that could lead to kidney failure
  • Women more at risk
  • Can be bacteria cause by E coli and introduce to the tract
  • Colonisation starts
  • Neutrophils are recruited in the area
  • Bacteria multiple and evade neutrophils
  • When progresses it reaches to kidneys and colonise causing kidney failure or sepsis

Question 25

Patho of Diabetes

Answer 25

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease caused by the imbalance of insulin supply and demand. It leads to hyperglycemia and abnormal carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism. Alpha glucose and bets are insulin
• Type I diabetes mellitus is caused by autoimmune destruction of beta cells in the pancreas, which leads to an absolute insulin deficiency (birth)
• Born with a genetic condition which is caused by the environment
• T cells attack beta cells
• Symptoms develop through brain, muscles, and liver
• Insulin is present so liver releases glucose in response acting like its starving to take up in adipose fatty tissue that digests it for further energy causing lethargy and fatigue
• Glucose overwhelm kidneys infiltration and draws more water through urine

* Type II diabetes mellitus has a gradual onset of hyperglycemia and is the result of the development of resistance to the action of insulin and insufficient insulin secretion(age)
* Dysfunction of beta cells responding to high glucose
* Insulin resistance 
* Genetic hx can be caused but also hypertension , overweight and age 
* Obesity over time the receptors become desynthesises over time as it becomes used at high amounts .

Question 26

Patho of gastroenteritis

Answer 26

he 2 primary mechanisms responsible for acute gastroenteritis are (1) damage to the villous brush border of the intestine, causing malabsorption of intestinal contents and leading to an osmotic diarrhea, and (2) the release of toxins that bind to specific enterocyte receptors and cause the release of chloride ions into the intestinal lumen, leading to secretory diarrhea.

Norovirus

• Rotavirus
• Astrovirus
• Enteric Adenovirus

Question 27

Path of Pulmonary embolism

Answer 27

Pulmonary embolism (PE) is a blockage of an artery in the lungs by a substance that has moved from elsewhere in the body through the bloodstream (embolism).Most times, a pulmonary embolism is caused by blood clots that travel from the legs, or rarely, other parts of the body (deep vein thrombosis or DVT).
Symptoms include shortness of breath ,pleuritic  chest pain and cough up of blood sputum. Worsening chest pain when lying supine .Obstruction of the pulmonary arteries creates dead space ventilation as alveolar ventilation exceeds pulmonary capillary blood flow.This contributes to ventilation-perfusion mismatch, with vascular occlusion of the arteries increasing pulmonary vascular resistance

Question 28

MND /ALS

Answer 28

motor neuron disease (MND) is a progressive, neurodegenerative disorder that mainly attacks the human motor system, leading to significant disability and ultimately
death, usually within 3 years.Genetic .These factors include early management of respiratory dysfunction with non-invasive ventilation, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) represents 70% of cases.3,6 ALS classically begins in the limb and exhibits a combination of upper and lower motor neuron signs.3,6 In about 20% of patients, the weakness starts in the bulbar region.
Upper motor -stiffness ,slow ,spasm, hyperflexia
Lower motor -fluctuations, weakness and spasm

Question 29

MS

Answer 29

• De-myelinating disease
• Multiple sclerosis is a disease in which the immune system eats away at the protective covering of nerves.
• In MS, resulting nerve damage disrupts communication between the brain and the body.
• Reduce velocity of communication
• Immune system sneaks inti nerves and sees myelin as foreign
• This is autoimmune disease degraders white matter ( myelin ) causing damaged or lesions to the brain .
• Causes plaques and lesions in the brain having damaged immune system causing neuroinflammation .
• T cells mistakes myelin and attacks its attached proteins and promote degradation ,recuit immune cells( b cell)and macrophages
• Multiple sclerosis is multiple plaques
• Physiotherapy and medication that suppress the immune system can help with symptoms, and slow disease progression.
Multiple sclerosis causes many different symptoms, including vision loss, pain, fatigue and impaired coordination

Question 30

DKA/ HHS

Answer 30

Diabetic ketone acidosis and hypergylcemic and hyperpolar nonkenotic coma occurs when the body starts breaking down fat at a rate that is much too fast. The liver processes the fat into a fuel called ketones, which causes the blood to become acidic
elevated levels of counter regulatory hormones: glucagon (16,17), catecholamines (16,18), cortisol (16), and growth hormone (19,20), resulting in increased hepatic glucose production and impaired glucose utilization in peripheral tissues, and 3) dehydration and electrolyte abnormalities, mainly due to osmotic diuresis caused by glycosuria (21) (Figure 3). Diabetic ketoacidosis is also characterized by increased gluconeogenesis,

Question 31

Patho Parkinson’s

Answer 31

These include paucity and slowness of movement (akinesia, bradykinesia), muscle stiffness (rigidity), and tremor at rest. In large part, these problems result from the prominent degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the midbrain, and the consequent deficiency of dopamine in brain areas that receive dopaminergic inputs from those neurons, specifically the post-commissural putamen and other basal ganglia regions.

Question 32

what is Hematochezia

Answer 32

Hematochezia is the passage of fresh blood per anus, usually in or with stools.

Question 33

Melena

Answer 33

Dark tarry stool with or without visible blood.

Question 34

oesphageal varcies

Answer 34

Esophageal varices are enlarged veins in the esophagus. They’re often due to obstructed blood flow through the portal vein, which carries blood from the intestine, pancreas and spleen to the liver.

Question 35

volvus

Answer 35

A volvulus is when a loop of intestine twists around itself and the mesentery that supports it, resulting in a bowel obstruction.

Question 36

ascities

Answer 36

Ascites is the abnormal buildup of fluid in the abdomen. Technically, it is more than 25 ml of fluid in the peritoneal cavity. Symptoms may include increased abdominal size, increased weight, abdominal discomfort, and shortness of breath. Complications can include spontaneous bacterial peritonitis.caused by liver scarring, otherwise known as cirrhosis. Scarring increases pressure inside the liver’s blood vessels. The increased pressure can force fluid into the abdominal cavity, resulting in ascites.

Question 37

CHF and pulmonary odema

Answer 37

Congestive heart failure (CHF) is an imbalance in pump function in which the heart fails to maintain the circulation of blood adequately. The most severe manifestation of CHF, pulmonary edema, develops when this imbalance causes an increase in lung fluid secondary to leakage from pulmonary capillaries into the interstitium and alveoli of the lung.

Question 38

O O O T T A F V G V A H

Answer 38

olfactory optic occumotor
trochlear trigemal abducents
facial vestibulochlear Glossophragneal
vagus glossary hypoglossal

Question 39

Well’s criteria

Answer 39

DVT signs 
100 HR
surgery or immobilization
Previous DVT or PE 
hemopytsis 
malignancy 
pallative care

Question 40

PE signs

Answer 40

One side chest pain , worst laying down , sptum , sharp

Question 41

virus
fungi
parasites
bacteria

Answer 41

Bacteria: one cell organisms are responsible for illnesses such as strep throat, UTIs and tuberculosis

Viruses: Even smaller than bacteria, viruses can cause a multitude of diseases ranging from the common cold to HIV.

Fungi: Many skin diseases, such as ringworm and athlete’s foot, are caused by fungi. Other types of fungi can infect your lungs or nervous system.

• Parasites: Malaria is caused by a tiny parasite that is transmitted by a mosquito bite. Other parasites may be transmitted to humans from animal fece

Question 42

wesley croup score

Answer 42

LOC 
Cyanosis 
stridor 
airentry 
chest wall restriction

Question 43

diverticulitis

Answer 43

Diverticulitis is a type of disease that affects your digestive tract. It’s a serious medical condition that causes inflamed pouches in the lining of your intestine.

Question 44

Rovings 
murphy
grey turners 
cullens 
mcburneys 

skin tugor

Answer 44

Rosvings -If palpation of the left lower quadrant of a person’s abdomen increases the pain felt in the right lower quadrant, the patient is said to have a positive Rovsing’s sign and may have appendicitis. Appindix

Murphy - hold a deep breath while palpating the right subcostal area. If pain occurs when the inflamed gallbladder comes into contact with the examiner’s hand, Murphy’s sign is positive. Gall bladder or choly

Grey Turner’s sign refers to bruising of the flanks, the part of the body between the last rib and the top of the hip. The bruising appears as a blue discoloration, and is a sign of retroperitoneal hemorrhage, or bleeding behind the peritoneum, which is a lining of the abdominal cavity. UTI

Cullen’s sign is superficial edema and bruising in the subcutaneous fatty tissue around the umbilicus. Pranceas

Question 45

psychosis

Answer 45

Frontal cortex area effects mesocortical pathway and mesolimbic pathway .
Meso - The NAC has neuron transmission of dopamine although releasing a large amount to cause binding on receptors to experience positive symptoms of delusion and hallucinations
Mesolimbic - In the frontal cortex also cause low dopamine amount that cant bind to all receptors developing negative symptoms which are decrease in social anilities- sadness

Question 46

Inflammatory cascade

Answer 46

Reddness, swelling , heat and pain

Chemical release of chinkine release and mast cells activated by virus /bacteria , mast cell release histamine and leukyrites
Histamine stimulate endothelial cells to spereates and starts to vasodilates, pooling blood and WBC in injury sites
Responders of neutrohphils and macrophages
And respond to chemicals
B cells and T cell recuitment
Heat 1.Cell are damaged or killed by physical injury of invading organisms.
2. Chemicals are released by granulocytes (e.g. histamines) which promote vasodilation around the damaged area.
3. More blood flow occurs to this area, and in the blood are cells and chemicals to help stop an infection from occurring. This increased blood flow results in redness, swelling and warmth around the area.
4. Due to the histamines making the blood vessels