Past to Present - Psychodynamic Approach

Question 1

Assumption 1

Answer 1

Influence of childhood experiences

Question 1

Assumption 1

Psychosexual stages - Oral

Answer 1

Oral (Birth - 18 months):
Focus – mouth.
Frustrated – pessimism, sarcasm
and envy.
Over indulged – optimistic, gullible,
needy.

Question 2

Assumption 1

Psychosexual stages - Anal

Answer 2

Anal (18 months – 3 years):
Focus – anus.
Frustrated – stubborn, possessive,
overly tidy.
Overindulged – messy, disorganised,
reckless

Question 3

Assumption 1

Psychosexual stages - Phallic

Answer 3

Phallic (3-5 years):
Focus – genitals.
Frustrated – self-assured, vain,
difficulty maintaining relationships

Question 4

Assumption 1

Psychosexual stages - Latency

Answer 4

Latency (5 years - puberty):
Focus - little/no sexual motivation.
No fixations.

Question 5

Assumption 1

Psychosexual stages- Genital

Answer 5

Genital (Puberty onwards):
Focus - genitals.
No fixations.

Question 6

Assumption 2

Answer 6

Tripartite personality

Question 7

Tripartite personality

The Id

Answer 7

The pleasure principal which controls
the impulsive and unconscious part of our personality and is present from birth.

Question 8

Tripartite personality

The Ego

Answer 8

The reality principal which controls
the conscious, rational part of the mind. This develops around the age of two.

Question 9

Tripartite personality

The Superego

Answer 9

The morality principle which
encompasses the sense of right and wrong. This is the final part of the personality to develop and this occurs around the age of four.

Question 10

Assumption 3

Answer 10

The unconscious mind

Question 11

The unconscious mind

Answer 11

Freud compared the mind to an iceberg. The conscious mind (above the water) is what we are aware of and is logical. Most mental processes occur in the unconscious mind (below the water). Freud believed the unconscious mind has the greatest influence on behavior.

Question 12

(2)

The unconscious mind

Answer 12

The unconscious mind contains unresolved conflicts that influence behaviour. Conflicts between the Id, Ego, and Superego create anxiety. Ego defence mechanisms protect the Ego from this anxiety. Examples of defence mechanisms include regression, repression, displacement, projection, and denial.

Question 13

Pyschodynamic assumptions to relationships -
Assumption 1

Answer 13

According to Freud, if a child successfully progresses through each stage, reaching the genital stage of development, it will lead to a well-developed adult personality who will go on to form a heterosexual romantic relationship. However, any fixations may make this difficult.

Question 14

(2)

Pyschodynamic assumptions to relationships - Assumption 1

Answer 14

If a child is fixated at the oral stage of development and is overindulged, it could result in an unhealthy over dependence on others in adulthood. If this is the case, this adult could become ‘needy’ in a relationship and seek constant reassurance.

Question 15

(3)

Pyschodynamic assumptions to relationships - Assumption 1

Answer 15

Fixation at the phallic stage can create difficulties in adult relationships. Freud introduced the concept of the Oedipus complex, where a boy experiences an unconscious desire for his mother and sees his father as a rival. In girls, the parallel is the Electra complex, where the girl unconsciously desires her father and feels rivalry toward her mother. These unresolved complexes can impact one’s ability to form healthy romantic relationships later in life.

Question 16

Pyschodynamic assumptions to relationships - Assumption 2

Answer 16

If one part of the tripartite
personality becomes dominate
this could, in turn, affect
relationships.

Question 17

Id

Pyschodynamic assumptions to relationships - Assumption 2

Answer 17

If the Id is most dominant, it
can lead to a power control
relationship which can be
aggressive and domineering,
making it traumatic for the
partner.

Question 18

Ego

Pyschodynamic assumptions to relationships - Assumption 2

Answer 18

If the ego is most dominant,
it can lead to the individual
having an overinflated sense
of ego and put themselves first
neglecting their partner which
is detrimental for maintaining a
healthy relationship.

Question 19

Superego

Pyschodynamic assumptions to relationships - Assumption 2

Answer 19

If the superego is most
dominant, it can lead to
lower levels of satisfaction in
relationship and marital quality.

Question 20

Pyschodynamic assumptions to relationships - Assumption 3

Answer 20

If a person is struggling to come
to terms with their sexuality
in adulthood, they may use a
defence mechanism to protect
the ego. Denial may be used
whereby the individual will
deny their sexuality and form
relationships with people they
aren’t happy with, ultimately,
resulting in an unhappy
destructive relationship.

Question 21

(2)

Pyschodynamic assumptions to relationships - Assumption 3

Answer 21

Another way defence
mechanisms can be applied to
relationships is when a person
is having an affair they might
accuse their partner of being
unfaithful as they are projecting
their behaviour onto someone
else.

Question 22

Dream analysis - Influence of childhood experiences

Answer 22

Any traumatic event that has occurred during early childhood may have been repressed and surface in the form of dreams. To uncover such repressed memories the therapist would offer interpretations of the dream
in the context of the client’s life.

Question 23

Dream analysis - Tripartite personality

Answer 23

Freud believed when a person is dreaming, the ego becomes suppressed and the Id is given free rein and dreams may represent unconscious motives, wishes and desires that would be socially unacceptable in the waking world.

Question 24

Dream analysis - Unconscious mind

Answer 24

The main aim of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious conscious, so that people become aware of unconscious influences. Dream analysis is thought to be the ‘via regia’ (the royal road) to the unconscious mind.

Question 25

Dream analysis process

Answer 25

The dreamer recalls their dream to the therapist. What the dreamer remembers (the story of the dream) is referred to as the manifest content. The process of dreamwork is applied to understand the dream. Dreamwork is when the latent content (underlying meaning of the dream) is transferred to the manifest content.

Question 26

Five main processes in dreamwork.

Answer 26

There are five main processes in dreamwork.
Condensation:
Rich detail is condensed into a brief image that stands for several associations and ideas
Displacement:
The emotional significance of a dream object is separated from its real object and then attached to an entirely different one so that dream content is not censored
Representation:
Thought is translated into images
Symbolism:
A symbol replaces a person or idea
Secondary Elaboration:
The unconscious mind collects all the different images and ties them together to form a logical story, further disguising the latent content. The actual dream material may be from recent events in a person’s life.

Question 27

Dream analysis - The role of the therapist

Answer 27

The therapist reverses the dreamwork process to uncover the underlying meaning of the dream, i.e. decoding the manifest content back to the latent content. It is important that the
therapist considers the context of the client’s life when offering interpretations and more than one interpretation should be offered allowing the client to select the one that makes the most sense to them.

Question 28

Effectiveness of dream analysis

Answer 28

There is evidence to support the link between dreaming and primary process thinking. Solms (2000) used PET scans to highlight the regions of the brain that are active during dreaming. The results showed that rational parts of the brain are indeed inactive during REM sleep whereas areas concerned with memory and motivation are very active. This study therefore supports Freud’s belief that the rational ego becomes suspended while the primitive unconscious driver part of the mind is given free reign.

Question 29

(2)

Effectiveness of dream analysis

Answer 29

Research into sleep and dreaming has methodological issues. Most dream research is done in labs, where people are hooked up to electrodes to measure brain activity and other bodily functions. This setup can make it hard to sleep naturally, so scientists question if dreaming in a lab is the same as dreaming at home. This lowers the ecological validity of dream studies, meaning the lab environment might not fully represent real-life dreaming experiences.

Question 30

(3)

Effectiveness of dream analysis

Answer 30

Dream analysis process is very subjective because it depends on how the therapist interprets the dream, which can vary widely between different therapists. Additionally, the dream itself is only a subjective report from the dreamer, who might not remember every detail or might interpret their own dream differently. Since psychology aims to be scientific, focusing on measurable and objective data, the subjective nature of dream analysis doesn’t align well with these goals. Scientific methods prioritise findings that are consistent and reproducible, but with dream analysis, two different therapists might interpret the same dream in completely different ways. This lack of objectivity makes it hard to scientifically validate dream analysis.

Question 31

Appropriateness of dream analysis

Answer 31

The therapist-client relationship can sometimes be criticised because it may create a power imbalance. In therapy, the therapist usually takes on the “expert” role, and the client relies on their guidance and support. This setup can sometimes make clients overly dependent on the therapist, feeling that they need the therapist to make progress or even to cope with their issues. This risk of overdependence is even higher for clients who suffer from depression, as they might already have a tendency to lean heavily on others for support. For them, this imbalance can make it harder to build confidence and independence, which are often essential for recovery. Thus, while the therapist’s guidance is crucial, it’s important for them to encourage self-reliance to prevent reinforcing this power imbalance.

Question 32

(2)

Appropriateness of dream analysis

Answer 32

There is a risk of stress, anxiety, humiliation, or pain to the participants during dream analysis. The therapist may guide the client towards an
interpretation of the dream that is emotionally distressing as it may bring uncover past traumatic events. Although this event may have
occurred, it could also be a false memory. This needs to be handled carefully during the therapy to ensure that the participant is protected during and after the therapy and
be informed of their right to withdraw if the therapy becomes too distressing. The therapist should make the patient aware of
false memory syndrome and the interpretations of the dream should be within the context of the client’s life with multiple interpretations
offered.

Question 33

Bowlby (1944) Methodology

Answer 33

This study was a series of case studies. There was a control group but the study was not an experiment. The final analysis looked at an association between the two groups of participants (thieves and control group) and experiences of separation.

Question 34

Methodology

Bowlby (1944): The thieves

Answer 34

He studied 44 children who had been referred to a child guidance clinic in London for stealing, calling them the “thieves.” The sample consisted of 31 boys and 13 girls, aged between 5 and 17 years old. They were graded in terms of the seriousness of their stealing. Grade IV thieves (22 of the children) had been stealing for a long time, some for more than three years. Grade I thieves had committed only one theft - four children fell into this-category. 27 of the children had average IQ, 15 had an higher IQ and 2 had a lower IQ.

Question 35

Methodology

Bowbly (1944): Control group

Answer 35

A control group was also used in this study, consisting of a further 44 children who attended the clinic. This group was similar in age, sex and IQ to the ‘thieves. Like the ‘thieves’ this group were emotionally disturbed but they did not steal. Thus, altogether, 88 children were involved in this study, all of whom had been referred to the child guidance clinic for emotional problems.

Question 36

Methodology

Bowbly (1944): Mothers

Answer 36

In addition, the mothers of the thieves and of the control group participants were also involved in the study. The mothers were interviewed in order to assess the case histories of the children.

Question 37

Bowlby (1944) Procedures

Answer 37

On arrival to the clinic, each child was
given mental tests by a psychologist to assess their intelligence. The psychologist who conducted the
test also noted the emotional attitude
of the child. A social worker interviewed the child’s mother and recorded preliminary details about the child’s early psychiatric history.
Both the psychologist and social
worker reported to Bowlby (the
psychiatrist). Bowlby then interviewed the child and mother. After a 2-hour examination, the team reviewed school and other reports, discussing their conclusions. Most of the children continued to meet with the psychiatrist on a weekly basis for a period of six months or more. The mothers talked about their problems with the social worker.

Question 38

Findings

Bowlby (1944): Diagnosis

Answer 38

Bowlby classified the 44 thieves into six character types based on their behaviors and emotional states:
Normal (2 children): Children whose characters appear fairly normal and stable.
Depressed (9 children): Children who have been unstable and are
in a depressed state of mind.
Circular (2 children): Unstable children who show alternating depression and over-activity.
Hyperthymic (13 children): Children who demonstrate constant overactivity.
Affectionless (14 children): Children who lack normal affection, shame
or sense of responsibility.
Schizoid (4 children): Children who show marked schizoid or
schizophrenic symptoms.

Question 39

Findings

Bowlby (1944): The affectionless character

Answer 39

Bowlby identified a group of 14 affection less children out of 44 thieves. A clear pattern linked affectionless characters to delinquency. 12 out of 14 affectionless children had experienced frequent separations from their mothers. Only 3 of the 30 non-affectionless thieves had experienced separations. In the control group, only 2 children had prolonged separations.

Question 40

Findings

Bowlby (1944): Other factors

Answer 40

17 of the 44 thieves experienced early separation. Early separation linked to affectionless characters but not all thieves. Bowbly reported that 17 of the remaining 27 thieves had mothers who were: ‘either extremely anxious, irritable or fussy or else were rigid, domineering and oppressive… These are traits that mask unconscious hostility(page 55). 5 of the 27 thieves had fathers who hated them and expressed it openly. These early negative experiences were also present in the non-delinquent group.
Such experiences might explain emotional problems, but not necessarily delinquency.

Question 41

Bowbly (1944): Conclusions

Answer 41

Bowlby concluded that factors
that inhibit the development of
the ability to form relationships
affect the likelihood of offending.
The findings therefore support
the assumptions that early
childhood experiences affect later
behaviours. He focused on the relationship between a mother and child, and the importance this has in emotional development. He proposed that the damage to this relationship would affect the development of the superego, leading to a reduced sense of right and wrong. Juvenile delinquency has many complex causes, such as poverty, bad housing, and lack of recreational facilities. This study emphasises psychoanalytic factors, particularly early experiences.

Question 42

Conclusions

Bowlby (1944): Implications for treatment

Answer 42

Treatment for delinquents should be offered, though it is slow and difficult. Early diagnosis improves the chances for effective treatment. Prevention is preferred over treatment. Some separations between mothers and children may be unavoidable (e.g., death, illness, or social circumstances). Preventing prolonged separation is key for reducing the risk of delinquency.

Question 43

Evaluation: Methodology and Procedures

Bowlby (1944): No casual findings

Answer 43

A weakness of the procedure is that a cause-effect relationship cannot be established. Bowlby didn’t manipulate variables within his research as he
used non-experimental methods (case studies and interviews) to collect his data. Therefore, a causal relationship between prolonged separation and emotional disturbance cannot be determined. This threatens the internal validity of the study as other factors could’ve contributed towards the emotional disturbance.

Question 44

Evaluation: Methodology and Procedures

Bowlby (1944): Biased data

Answer 44

A weakness of the research is that the case studies were largely based on the recollections of the parents. The parents were asked, during the interviews, to discuss childhood experiences that happened many years before. The problem with this is that the recollections may not be
accurate as it relies on memories which could become distorted
over time or could be subject to social desirability bias. If the recollections are not accurate, then this would threaten the internal validity of the research producing biased results.

Question 45

Evaluation: Methodology and Procedures

Bowlby (1944): The sample

Answer 45

A weakness of the sample is that it lacks population validity. Both the 44 in thieves’ group and the 44 in the control group were emotionally disturbed. Therefore, the results cannot be generalised to all children as not all juvenile delinquents are emotionally disturbed. This threatens the external validity of the research as the results cannot be generalised beyond the sample.

Question 46

Evaluation: Methodology and Procedures

Bowlby (1944): Qualitative data

Answer 46

A strength of the research is that, as it was a case study, rich qualitative data was gained. In the final report, there were 56 pages and 25 of them were
discussing the case histories of the 44 thieves. The vast detail of these case histories allows a great insight to
the problems that may have contributed towards the juvenile
delinquency. This increases the external validity of the research as it is high in ecological validity.

Question 47

Ethical issues and social implications

Bowlby (1944): Confidentiality and privacy

Answer 47

The participants were not given
confidentiality. Bowlby’s report named the participants used in the case studies with their first name and first initial of their surname. As well as using names, the case studies provided a lot of detail about their lives. By using both the first name and the initial of the surname, it makes it easier to identify the participants.

Question 48

Ethical issues and social implications

Bowlby (1944): Valid consent

Answer 48

There may have been questions over valid consent. Bowlby’s participants were children aged 5-17 years who were attending a child guidance clinic. As children were used, in loco parentis was gained. However, it is expected today that children would also be informed about the nature of the research. The study was conducted in 1944 when ethical guidelines weren’t as stringent
as they are today. It would be common practise for the children to be informed that their data collected during their stay at the guidance clinic would be used as part of the research.

Question 49

Evaluation of psychodynamic approach

Nature and nuture (Strength)

Answer 49

One strength of the pyschodynamic approach is that it takes into account both sides of the nature-nuture debate.
Nature:
Freud explains personality as a product of innate drives. He believed the Id is present from
birth and is the biological aspect of
our personality.
Nuture:
Personality and behaviour are
explained through childhood experiences and progression through the psychosexual stages of development. Frustration or overindulgence during these stages will have an influence on personality traits in later life such as being oral aggressive and anal retentive.

Question 50

Evaluation of psychodynamic approach

Nature and nuture (Elaboration)

Answer 50

Frued’s theory therefore considers the influence of nature (things we are born with) and nuture (things that develop through experience). The interactionist nature of this approach is a key strength.

Question 51

Evaluation of psychodynamic approach

Usefulness (Strength)

Answer 51

Psychoanalytical therapies such as
dream analysis, hypnosis, group analysis therapy and free association have been used to treat several disorders such as depression and anxiety disorders. The British Psychoanalytical Society also provided evidence for the positive effects of
psychodynamic therapies in treating several psychological disorders such as depression, anxiety, PTSD and eating disorders, providing further
support for the application in
society.

Question 52

Evaluation of psychodynamic approach

Usefulness (Elaboration)

Answer 52

The use of psychodynamic principles
within society is viewed as a strength
of the approach. It supports the
assumptions of the approach and
is considered a strength because,
ultimately, psychologists conduct
research and develop theories to
improve the world we live in, e.g.
treating/curing mental disorders.

Question 53

Evaluation of psychodynamic approach

Reflects the complexity of human behaviour (Strength)

Answer 53

Freud explained complex human behaviour in terms of the mechanics of the mind and how we progressed through childhood. Freud’s explanations reflect the complexity of human behaviour and experience. This can be seen as holistic as it recognises that human behaviour can be influenced by many factors. Also, Therapy looks to discover why something happened and treat that unlike behaviourist which would just teach new associations or biological which may treat only symptoms.

Question 54

Evaluation of psychodynamic approach

Reflects the complexity of human behaviour (Elaboration)

Answer 54

Research can be focused, and a lot of detail can be garnered into the psychodynamic explanations of behaviour. Ultimately, this results in more focused treatments which
is a strength of the approach.

Question 55

Evaluation of psychodynamic approach

Reductionist and oversimplified approach (Weakness)

Answer 55

By focusing on explaining behaviour through innate drives and childhood experiences, other explanations such as genetics, biochemistry and neuroanatomy are ignored.

Question 56

Evaluation of psychodynamic approach

Reductionist and oversimplified approach (Elaboration)

Answer 56

Reducing complex human behaviour to mechanics of the mind and the progression through childhood oversimplifies behaviour and overlooks other significant explanations of behaviour which is a
weakness of the approach.

Question 57

Evaluation of psychodynamic approach

Determinist approach (Weakness)

Answer 57

Behaviour determined by innate drives, as if a part of the tripartite personality, was so dominant, it could determine personality. For example, Id: psychopathic personality.
Ego: narcissistic personality.
Superego: neurotic personality.
Behaviour determined by early childhood experiences, such as being fixated at a psychosexual stage, can affect later adult behaviour. For example, oral stage fixation: pessimism, envy, sarcasm. Oral stage overindulgence: overindulgence - optimism, gullibility, and being needy in future relationships.

Question 58

Evaluation of psychodynamic approach

Determinist approach (Elaboration)

Answer 58

One of the problems with this
deterministic perspective is the choice of free will, that we have as human beings, is undermined as it suggests that our behaviour is pre-determined by forces or experiences we cannot change.

Question 59

Evaluation of psychodynamic approach

Cannot be proven wrong (Weakness)

Answer 59

As the psychodynamic approach largely focuses on the unconscious, it makes it very difficult to falsify (prove to be false). It cannot be proven that the id, ego, and superego don’t exist within the mind and we cannot disprove the existence of the psychosexual stages of development, therefore his theory of personality
development cannot be falsified. Freud’s suggestion that dreams are the via regia to the unconscious which represent fulfilment of repressed wishes and desires. Although, we
cannot falsify this theory, dream analysis is still used in psychoanalytical therapy today
with reported success.

Question 60

Evaluation of psychodynamic approach

Cannot be proven wrong (Elaboration)

Answer 60

Psychology aims to produce scientific
and objective theories which can be
falsified and supported by research
evidence. Without this element of
scientific rigor, the theory and the
assumptions that underpin it could
be questionable. This is considered a
weakness of the approach.