Past to Present - Psychodynamic Approach

Question 1

Assumption 1

Answer 1

Influence of childhood experiences

Question 2

Assumption 1

Psychosexual stages - Oral

Answer 2

Oral (Birth - 18 months):
Focus – mouth.
Frustrated – pessimism, sarcasm
and envy.
Over indulged – optimistic, gullible,
needy.

Question 3

Assumption 1

Psychosexual stages - Anal

Answer 3

Anal (18 months – 3 years):
Focus – anus.
Frustrated – stubborn, possessive,
overly tidy.
Overindulged – messy, disorganised,
reckless

Question 4

Assumption 1

Psychosexual stages - Phallic

Answer 4

Phallic (3-5 years):
Focus – genitals.
Frustrated – self-assured, vain,
difficulty maintaining relationships

Question 5

Assumption 1

Psychosexual stages - Latency

Answer 5

Latency (5 years - puberty):
Focus - little/no sexual motivation.
No fixations.

Question 6

Assumption 1

Psychosexual stages- Genital

Answer 6

Genital (Puberty onwards):
Focus - genitals.
No fixations.

Question 7

Assumption 1: Psychological example

Answer 7

Freud believed that fixations during the psychosexual stages of development could lead to specific adult behaviors. A fixation at the oral stage could result in eating disorders or addictions like smoking or alcohol use. A fixation at the anal stage might lead to an anal personality type or even obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). A fixation at the phallic stage could cause confusion in sexuality and difficulties in forming romantic relationships. Freud’s case study of Little Hans provided further evidence for his Oedipus complex theory, where children experience unconscious desires for the opposite-sex parent and jealousy toward the same-sex parent.

Question 8

Assumption 2

Answer 8

Tripartite personality

Question 9

Tripartite personality

The Id

Answer 9

The pleasure principal which is
the impulsive and unconscious part of our personality and is present from birth.

Question 10

Tripartite personality

The Ego

Answer 10

The reality principal which is
the conscious, rational part of the mind. This develops around the age of two.

Question 11

Tripartite personality

The Superego

Answer 11

The morality principle which
encompasses the sense of right and wrong. This is the final part of the personality to develop and this occurs around the age of four.

Question 12

Assumption 2: Psychological example

Answer 12

Freud believed that criminals are driven by their Id, with their superego suppressed, leading them to seek immediate pleasure and gratification without concern for morality or consequences. This is particularly true for psychopaths, who lack remorse. Eysenck supported this idea, suggesting that personality traits like high extroversion, neuroticism, and psychopathy increase the likelihood of criminal behavior. People with these traits are more prone to engaging in criminal acts, as they are less inhibited and more impulsive.

Question 13

Assumption 3

Answer 13

The unconscious mind

Question 14

The unconscious mind

Answer 14

Freud compared the mind to an iceberg. The conscious mind (above the water) is what we are aware of and is logical. Most mental processes occur in the unconscious mind (below the water). Freud believed the unconscious mind has the greatest influence on behavior.

Question 15

(2)

The unconscious mind

Answer 15

The unconscious mind contains unresolved conflicts that influence behaviour. Conflicts between the Id, Ego, and Superego create anxiety. Ego defence mechanisms protect the Ego from this anxiety. Examples of defence mechanisms include regression, repression, displacement, projection, and denial.

Question 16

Assumption 3: Psychological example

Answer 16

Gothelf et al. (1995) found that adolescents with severe anorexia used defense mechanisms such as regression, denial, projection, and repression more frequently than those without psychiatric disorders. The study showed that anorexic adolescents relied on more mature defense mechanisms compared to other adolescents. These defense mechanisms help them cope with anxiety and stress but may also contribute to the development and persistence of anorexia.

Question 17

Pyschodynamic assumptions to relationships -
Assumption 1

Answer 17

According to Freud, if a child successfully progresses through each stage, reaching the genital stage of development, it will lead to a well-developed adult personality who will go on to form a heterosexual romantic relationship. However, any fixations may make this difficult.

Question 18

(2)

Pyschodynamic assumptions to relationships - Assumption 1

Answer 18

If a child is fixated at the oral stage of development and is overindulged, it could result in an unhealthy over dependence on others in adulthood. If this is the case, this adult could become ‘needy’ in a relationship and seek constant reassurance.

Question 19

(3)

Pyschodynamic assumptions to relationships - Assumption 1

Answer 19

Fixation at the phallic stage can create difficulties in adult relationships. Freud introduced the concept of the Oedipus complex, where a boy experiences an unconscious desire for his mother and sees his father as a rival. In girls, the parallel is the Electra complex, where the girl unconsciously desires her father and feels rivalry toward her mother. These unresolved complexes can impact one’s ability to form healthy romantic relationships later in life.

Question 20

Pyschodynamic assumptions to relationships - Assumption 2

Answer 20

If one part of the tripartite
personality becomes dominate
this could, in turn, affect
relationships.

Question 21

Id

Pyschodynamic assumptions to relationships - Assumption 2

Answer 21

If the Id is most dominant, it
can lead to a power control
relationship which can be
aggressive and domineering,
making it traumatic for the
partner.

Question 22

Ego

Pyschodynamic assumptions to relationships - Assumption 2

Answer 22

If the ego is most dominant,
it can lead to the individual
having an overinflated sense
of ego and put themselves first
neglecting their partner which
is detrimental for maintaining a
healthy relationship.

Question 23

Superego

Pyschodynamic assumptions to relationships - Assumption 2

Answer 23

If the superego is most
dominant, it can lead to
lower levels of satisfaction in
relationship and marital quality.

Question 24

Pyschodynamic assumptions to relationships - Assumption 3

Answer 24

If a person is struggling to come
to terms with their sexuality
in adulthood, they may use a
defence mechanism to protect
the ego. Denial may be used
whereby the individual will
deny their sexuality and form
relationships with people they
aren’t happy with, ultimately,
resulting in an unhappy
destructive relationship.

Question 25

(2)

Pyschodynamic assumptions to relationships - Assumption 3

Answer 25

Another way defence
mechanisms can be applied to
relationships is when a person
is having an affair they might
accuse their partner of being
unfaithful as they are projecting
their behaviour onto someone
else.

Question 26

Dream analysis - Influence of childhood experiences

Answer 26

Any traumatic event that has occurred during early childhood may have been repressed and surface in the form of dreams. To uncover such repressed memories the therapist would offer interpretations of the dream
in the context of the client’s life.

Question 27

Dream analysis - Tripartite personality

Answer 27

Freud believed when a person is dreaming, the ego becomes suppressed and the Id is given free rein and dreams may represent unconscious motives, wishes and desires that would be socially unacceptable in the waking world.

Question 28

Dream analysis - Unconscious mind

Answer 28

The main aim of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious conscious, so that people become aware of unconscious influences. Dream analysis is thought to be the ‘via regia’ (the royal road) to the unconscious mind.

Question 29

Dream analysis process

Answer 29

The dreamer recalls their dream to the therapist. What the dreamer remembers (the story of the dream) is referred to as the manifest content. The process of dreamwork is applied to understand the dream. Dreamwork is when the latent content (underlying meaning of the dream) is transferred to the manifest content.

Question 30

Five main processes in dreamwork.

Answer 30

There are five main processes in dreamwork.
Condensation:
Rich detail is condensed into a brief image that stands for several associations and ideas
Displacement:
The emotional significance of a dream object is separated from its real object and then attached to an entirely different one so that dream content is not censored
Representation:
Thought is translated into images
Symbolism:
A symbol replaces a person or idea
Secondary Elaboration:
The unconscious mind collects all the different images and ties them together to form a logical story, further disguising the latent content. The actual dream material may be from recent events in a person’s life.

Question 31

Dream analysis - The role of the therapist

Answer 31

The therapist reverses the dreamwork process to uncover the underlying meaning of the dream, i.e. decoding the manifest content back to the latent content. It is important that the
therapist considers the context of the client’s life when offering interpretations and more than one interpretation should be offered allowing the client to select the one that makes the most sense to them.

Question 32

Effectiveness of dream analysis

Research evidence

Answer 32

Recent research supports Freud’s ideas about dreams. Solms (2000) used PET scans to show that during REM sleep, the rational part of the brain (ego) is inactive, while memory and motivation areas (id) are active. This supports Freud’s idea that the id controls dreams. Hopfield et al. (1983) used computer simulations of neural networks to show that memories are condensed when the brain is overloaded, supporting Freud’s concept of condensation in dreams.

Question 33

Effectiveness of dream analysis

Methodological issues

Answer 33

Methodological issues arise in dream research. Studies often take place in sleep laboratories, which may affect the authenticity of the sleep/dream state, reducing ecological validity. Participants are wired up with electrodes, which may alter the natural dreaming process. Additionally, research often involves sleep deprivation or disruption of certain sleep stages, such as REM. This can impair biological functions like hormone and neurotransmitter secretion, acting as confounding variables, meaning results should be interpreted cautiously.

Question 34

Effectiveness of dream analysis

Subjective interpretation

Answer 34

Dream analysis is highly subjective, as it relies on the therapist’s interpretation of the manifest content and its latent meaning. Additionally, the dream itself is a subjective report from the dreamer, which may not be reliable. This makes dream analysis inconsistent with the objective scientific aims of psychology.

Question 35

Appropriateness of dream analysis

Therapist-client relationship

Answer 35

Therapies based on the psychodynamic approach can create a power imbalance between the therapist and client, as the therapist takes on the expert role, providing insight into the client’s unconscious. This can lead to the patient becoming overly reliant on the therapist for progress, which may be problematic, particularly for individuals with depression who might already have a tendency to over-rely on others.

Question 36

Appropriateness of dream analysis

Appropriateness of dream analysis

Answer 36

.

Question 37

Bowlby (1944) Methodology

Answer 37

This study was a series of case studies. There was a control group but the study was not an experiment. The final analysis looked at an association between the two groups of participants (thieves and control group) and experiences of separation.

Question 38

Methodology

Bowlby (1944): The thieves

Answer 38

He studied 44 children who had been referred to a child guidance clinic in London for stealing, calling them the “thieves.” The sample consisted of 31 boys and 13 girls, aged between 5 and 17 years old. They were graded in terms of the seriousness of their stealing. Grade IV thieves (22 of the children) had been stealing for a long time, some for more than three years. Grade I thieves had committed only one theft - four children fell into this-category. 27 of the children had average IQ, 15 had an higher IQ and 2 had a lower IQ.

Question 39

Methodology

Bowbly (1944): Control group

Answer 39

A control group was also used in this study, consisting of a further 44 children who attended the clinic. This group was similar in age, sex and IQ to the ‘thieves. Like the ‘thieves’ this group were emotionally disturbed but they did not steal. Thus, altogether, 88 children were involved in this study, all of whom had been referred to the child guidance clinic for emotional problems.

Question 40

Methodology

Bowbly (1944): Mothers

Answer 40

In addition, the mothers of the thieves and of the control group participants were also involved in the study. The mothers were interviewed in order to assess the case histories of the children.

Question 41

Bowlby (1944) Procedures

Answer 41

On arrival to the clinic, each child was
given mental tests by a psychologist to assess their intelligence. The psychologist who conducted the
test also noted the emotional attitude
of the child. A social worker interviewed the child’s mother and recorded preliminary details about the child’s early psychiatric history. Both the psychologist and social worker reported to Bowlby (the psychiatrist). Bowlby then interviewed the child and mother. After a 2-hour examination, the team reviewed school and other reports, discussing their conclusions. Most of the children continued to meet with the psychiatrist on a weekly basis for a period of six months or more. The mothers talked about their problems with the social worker.

Question 42

Findings

Bowlby (1944): Diagnosis

Answer 42

Bowlby classified the 44 thieves into six character types based on their behaviors and emotional states:
Normal (2 children): Children whose characters appear fairly normal and stable.
Depressed (9 children): Children who have been unstable and are
in a depressed state of mind.
Circular (2 children): Unstable children who show alternating depression and over-activity.
Hyperthymic (13 children): Children who demonstrate constant overactivity.
Affectionless (14 children): Children who lack normal affection, shame
or sense of responsibility.
Schizoid (4 children): Children who show marked schizoid or
schizophrenic symptoms.

Question 43

Findings

Bowlby (1944): The affectionless character

Answer 43

Bowlby identified a group of 14 affection less children out of 44 thieves. A clear pattern linked affectionless characters to delinquency. 12 out of 14 affectionless children had experienced frequent separations from their mothers. Only 3 of the 30 non-affectionless thieves had experienced separations. In the control group, only 2 children had prolonged separations.

Question 44

Findings

Bowlby (1944): Other factors

Answer 44

17 of the 44 thieves experienced early separation. Early separation linked to affectionless characters but not all thieves. Bowbly reported that 17 of the remaining 27 thieves had mothers who were: ‘either extremely anxious, irritable or fussy or else were rigid, domineering and oppressive… These are traits that mask unconscious hostility(page 55). 5 of the 27 thieves had fathers who hated them and expressed it openly. These early negative experiences were also present in the non-delinquent group.
Such experiences might explain emotional problems, but not necessarily delinquency.

Question 45

Bowbly (1944): Conclusions

Answer 45

Bowlby concluded that factors
that inhibit the development of
the ability to form relationships
affect the likelihood of offending.
The findings therefore support
the assumptions that early
childhood experiences affect later
behaviours. He focused on the relationship between a mother and child, and the importance this has in emotional development. He proposed that the damage to this relationship would affect the development of the superego, leading to a reduced sense of right and wrong. Juvenile delinquency has many complex causes, such as poverty, bad housing, and lack of recreational facilities. This study emphasises psychoanalytic factors, particularly early experiences.

Question 46

Conclusions

Bowlby (1944): Implications for treatment

Answer 46

Treatment for delinquents should be offered, though it is slow and difficult. Early diagnosis improves the chances for effective treatment. Prevention is preferred over treatment. Some separations between mothers and children may be unavoidable (e.g., death, illness, or social circumstances). Preventing prolonged separation is key for reducing the risk of delinquency.

Question 47

Evaluation: Methodology and Procedures

Bowlby (1944): No casual findings

Answer 47

A weakness of the procedure is that a cause-effect relationship cannot be established. Bowlby didn’t manipulate variables within his research as he
used non-experimental methods (case studies and interviews) to collect his data. Therefore, a causal relationship between prolonged separation and emotional disturbance cannot be determined. This threatens the internal validity of the study as other factors could’ve contributed towards the emotional disturbance.

Question 48

Evaluation: Methodology and Procedures

Bowlby (1944): Biased data

Answer 48

A weakness of the research is that the case studies were largely based on the recollections of the parents. The parents were asked, during the interviews, to discuss childhood experiences that happened many years before. The problem with this is that the recollections may not be
accurate as it relies on memories which could become distorted
over time or could be subject to social desirability bias. If the recollections are not accurate, then this would threaten the internal validity of the research producing biased results.

Question 49

Evaluation: Methodology and Procedures

Bowlby (1944): The sample

Answer 49

A weakness of the sample is that it lacks population validity. Both the 44 in thieves’ group and the 44 in the control group were emotionally disturbed. Therefore, the results cannot be generalised to all children as not all juvenile delinquents are emotionally disturbed. This threatens the external validity of the research as the results cannot be generalised beyond the sample.

Question 50

Evaluation: Methodology and Procedures

Bowlby (1944): Qualitative data

Answer 50

A strength of the research is that, as it was a case study, rich qualitative data was gained. In the final report, there were 56 pages and 25 of them were
discussing the case histories of the 44 thieves. The vast detail of these case histories allows a great insight to
the problems that may have contributed towards the juvenile
delinquency. This increases the external validity of the research as it is high in ecological validity.

Question 51

Ethical issues and social implications

Bowlby (1944): Confidentiality and privacy

Answer 51

The participants were not given
confidentiality. Bowlby’s report named the participants used in the case studies with their first name and first initial of their surname. As well as using names, the case studies provided a lot of detail about their lives. By using both the first name and the initial of the surname, it makes it easier to identify the participants.

Question 52

Ethical issues and social implications

Bowlby (1944): Valid consent

Answer 52

There may have been questions over valid consent. Bowlby’s participants were children aged 5-17 years who were attending a child guidance clinic. As children were used, in loco parentis was gained. However, it is expected today that children would also be informed about the nature of the research. The study was conducted in 1944 when ethical guidelines weren’t as stringent
as they are today. It would be common practise for the children to be informed that their data collected during their stay at the guidance clinic would be used as part of the research.

Question 53

Evaluation of psychodynamic approach

Nature and nuture (Strength)

Answer 53

A strength of the psychodynamic approach is that it considers both nature and nurture, making it interactionist. Freud argued that adult personality is shaped by innate drives (nature) and childhood experiences (nurture). The id, driven by instinctual forces like Eros (life drive) and Thanatos (death drive), represents the biological, nature-based aspect of personality. Nurture is reflected in the psychosexual stages, where fixation due to frustration or overindulgence can lead to specific adult traits. By addressing the influence of both innate factors and experiences, the psychodynamic approach provides a balanced perspective on human behaviour.

Question 54

Evaluation of psychodynamic approach

Usefulness (Strength)

Answer 54

The psychodynamic approach is useful in several ways. It emphasises the critical role of childhood in shaping who we become, highlighting the importance of early experiences in development. Freud’s ideas have also influenced therapeutic practices, particularly psychoanalysis, which has been used to treat mental disorders by addressing unconscious conflicts. Freud was the first to recognise that psychological factors could explain physical symptoms, such as paralysis. Research supports the effectiveness of psychoanalysis in helping individuals overcome psychological problems, making this approach valuable in understanding and treating mental health issues.

Question 55

Evaluation of psychodynamic approach

Reflects the complexity of human behaviour (Strength)

Answer 55

The psychodynamic approach is holistic, recognizing that human behaviour is influenced by multiple interconnected factors. Unlike reductionist approaches, such as behaviourism, which focus on one factor (like re-learning for mental disorder recovery), Freud’s approach acknowledges the complexity of behaviour, considering underlying causes. For instance, behaviourism might overlook the root cause of a disorder, leading to symptom substitution, where symptoms reappear. In contrast, Freud’s psychoanalysis aims to uncover deep, unconscious meanings, reflecting the complexity of human experience and offering a more thorough understanding of behaviour.

Question 56

Evaluation of psychodynamic approach

Reductionist and oversimplified approach (Weakness)

Answer 56

A weakness of the psychodynamic approach is that it can be seen as reductionist, simplifying complex human behaviour to the conflict between the id, ego, and superego, and the impact of early childhood experiences. This oversimplifies human behaviour by ignoring other important factors, such as biochemistry and genetics. For example, in the 1950s and 60s, autism was incorrectly explained by the psychodynamic theory as a result of distant “refrigerator mothers,” which overlooked the biological factors involved. Thus, the psychodynamic approach sometimes oversimplifies behaviour and neglects other crucial influences.

Question 57

Evaluation of psychodynamic approach

Determinist approach (Weakness)

Answer 57

A weakness of the psychodynamic approach is its determinist viewpoint, which suggests that both infant and adult behaviour are determined by innate forces (libido) and childhood experiences. This implies that we have no free will in shaping our personality or behaviour, as they are pre-determined. This can be problematic, as it may excuse unreasonable behaviour or criminal actions by implying individuals cannot control their actions (“I can’t help the way I am”). It also suggests people are not responsible for their behaviour, which undermines personal accountability.

Question 58

Evaluation of psychodynamic approach

Cannot be proven wrong (Weakness)

Answer 58

As the psychodynamic approach largely focuses on the unconscious, it makes it very difficult to falsify (prove to be false). It cannot be proven that the id, ego, and superego don’t exist within the mind and we cannot disprove the existence of the psychosexual stages of development, therefore his theory of personality
development cannot be falsified. Freud’s suggestion that dreams are the via regia to the unconscious which represent fulfilment of repressed wishes and desires. Although, we
cannot falsify this theory, dream analysis is still used in psychoanalytical therapy today
with reported success.