Past to Present - Cognitive Approach

Question 1

Assumption 1

Answer 1

Internal mental
processes

Question 2

Assumption 1: internal mental
processes

Answer 2

Humans use cognitive processes like memory, attention, language, decision-making, and perception to interpret sensory information. These processes work together quickly and often automatically, helping us make sense of the world. Example: Answering a question involves attention, language processing, memory recall, and response formulation.

Question 3

Assumption 1:
Psychological example

Answer 3

In order to study internal mental processes, psychologists use introspection, where participants describe their thoughts during a task.
Example: Griffiths (1994) used introspection with gamblers on fruit machines. Regular gamblers showed more irrational thoughts than non-gamblers by “thinking aloud.”

Question 4

Assumption 2

Answer 4

Computer analogy

Question 5

Assumption 2: computer analogy

Answer 5

Cognitive psychologists compare the human mind to a computer. The process is similar:

Input: A computer receives input (e.g., from a keyboard), and humans receive input through their senses (e.g., listening to a teacher).

Process: A computer processes information (e.g., display and storage), and humans process by rehearsing and storing information in memory.

Output: A computer outputs information (e.g., recalling a saved document), and humans recall information when needed (e.g., answering a question).

Question 6

Assumption 2: Psychological example

Answer 6

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) created the multi-store model of memory, which suggests there are three memory stores:

Sensory Memory: The first store, where information enters from the environment (input).
Short-Term Memory (STM): If you pay attention, information moves to STM.
Long-Term Memory (LTM): By rehearsing information, it transfers to LTM.

So, sensory memory is input, attention and rehearsal are processing, and retrieval is output.

Question 7

Assumption 3

Answer 7

Schemas

Question 8

Assumption 3: schemas

Answer 8

Schemas are like knowledge packets that store information. They can change with experience. For example, if you learn a new fact and rehearse it, your schema adapts.

Schemas come in different forms, with scripts being a common type. Scripts are our expectations of how certain situations should unfold. For example, in a restaurant, a typical script is:
Wait to be seated.
Order food.
Eat.
Pay the bill.

Question 9

Assumption 3: Psychological example

Answer 9

The halo effect suggests that if we have a positive impression of someone in one area, we are likely to believe they have other positive qualities too. For example, if we think someone is friendly, we might also assume they are intelligent or kind.

Dion et al. (1972) demonstrated this by showing that people judged as physically attractive were also seen as more competent, successful, and having other positive traits. Therefore, the schema assumption would suggest that we may enter romantic relationships with people we find physically attractive as we also believe they have other positive characteristics as well.

Question 10

Internal mental processes to the formation of relationships

Answer 10

The social exchange theory (Thibaut & Kelly, 1959) suggests that when choosing a partner, we weigh the costs and benefits. For example, a potential partner might be funny (benefit) but lazy (cost). We assess these factors before deciding if a relationship is worth pursuing.
Relationships are formed based on decision-making, where internal mental processes, like weighing costs and benefits, play a role.

Question 11

(2)

Internal mental processes to the formation of relationships

Answer 11

If the benefits outweigh the costs, the relationship is more likely to form and last. An individual’s expectations based on past experiences and desires, will influence the decision. This is called the comparison level. The availability of other potential partners. If there are many options, expectations may rise, and individuals may be more likely to end unsatisfactory relationships.

Question 12

Schemas to the formation of relationships

Answer 12

People tend to form relationships with others who have a similar level of physical attractiveness. This is influenced by our self-schemas—how we view ourselves. If someone is confident in their physical appearance, they are more likely to pursue relationships with others who are also physically attractive.

Question 13

(2)

Schemas to the formation of relationships

Answer 13

The halo effect suggests that when we have a positive impression of someone in one area (e.g., they are friendly), we are likely to assume they have other positive traits too (e.g., they are intelligent). This means that our schemas about people—how we perceive their qualities—can influence the likelihood of forming romantic relationships.

Question 14

Rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT)

Answer 14

The cognitive approach suggests that normal behavior is based on how we view ourselves and the world around us, which links to the idea of schemas. Psychological problems arise when these perceptions are irrational, such as having a negative view of oneself or believing irrational things about relationships (e.g., thinking that work colleagues dislike you).

REBT (Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy) aims to challenge and change these irrational thoughts. By replacing irrational thoughts with rational ones, the goal is to achieve a more realistic self-perception, which in turn leads to more normal behavior.

Question 15

Components of REBT

Answer 15

REBT (Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy) can be summarised using the ABCDE model proposed by Ellis (1957):

A – Activating event: This is the stimulus or situation that triggers negative thoughts and feelings (e.g., an argument with a colleague).

B – Belief: This is your belief about the event, which is often irrational (e.g., “My colleague hates me”).

C – Consequence: This is the result of the belief, showing what the individual does because of the belief (e.g., feeling anxious, avoiding the colleague).

The ABC section highlights how irrational thoughts and beliefs develop and are maintained, and these are explored and challenged in therapy.

D – Disputing: The irrational beliefs are challenged by discussing them objectively. The client learns to differentiate between rational and irrational thoughts. Different methods of disputing can be used.

E – Effects: This involves the outcomes of disputing irrational beliefs, such as replacing them with more rational thoughts, leading to improved behavior and self-perception.

Question 16

Types of disputing

Answer 16

Logical disputing: getting the client to think about whether their thought patterns ‘make sense’.

Empirical disputing: asking the client if there is evidence to support their beliefs.

Pragmatic disputing: getting the client to think whether their thought patterns are useful to them or not.

Question 17

Effectiveness of REBT

Answer 17

Engels et al. (1993) conducted a meta-analysis, which is a statistical method used to analyze multiple studies. They examined 28 studies that looked at the effectiveness of REBT compared to other therapeutic interventions. The findings showed that REBT was more effective than a placebo or no treatment. Additionally, it was found to be as effective as other therapies, such as systematic desensitisation.

Question 18

(2)

Effectiveness of REBT

Answer 18

Limited in usefulness:
REBT may not be effective for all individuals. It requires clients to play an active role in their therapy, which can be challenging for some. Additionally, honesty and openness about their thoughts and feelings are crucial, and not all clients may be comfortable with this level of self-disclosure.

Question 19

Appropriateness of REBT

Answer 19

REBT can be a difficult therapy to go through. Clients are often forcefully challenged and presented with the idea that it is their belief (the B part of the ABCDE model) that is
causing irrational thoughts and their own mental health issues.

Question 20

(2)

Appropriateness of REBT

Answer 20

The ‘sadder but wiser’ effect suggests that individuals with depression may experience a sadder (more depressed) mood but are wiser in the sense that they are often more accurate at predicting outcomes and seeing situations realistically. In contrast, non-depressed individuals may view life more optimistically, or with rose-tinted glasses, and therefore may be less accurate in their predictions and perceptions.

Question 21

Loftus and Palmer (1974) Methodology

Answer 21

The methodology used was an experiment conducted in a laboratory. Both experiment 1 and experiment 2 used an independent
measures design. There were 45 students in experiment 1 and 150 students in experiment 2.

Question 22

Loftus and Palmer (1974) Procedures

Procedures: Experiment 1

Answer 22

Participants watched seven clips of car accidents (5-30 seconds long) from driver safety films. After each clip, they completed a questionnaire, giving an account of the accident and answering specific questions, including a critical question about the speed of the cars. The wording of the question varied for five groups (9 participants each), using verbs: “hit,” “smashed,” “collided,” “bumped,” or “contacted.” Participants estimated the cars’ speeds in miles per hour, and their responses were recorded to analyse the effect of verb choice on speed estimation.

Question 23

Loftus and Palmer (1974) Procedures

Procedures: Experiment 2

Answer 23

This experiment tested if leading questions altered memory or merely biased responses. Participants watched a 4-second film of a car crash and answered questions, including a critical one about speed. Three groups (50 participants each) were tested: Group 1 was asked, “How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?”; Group 2, “How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?”; and Group 3 (control) was not asked a speed-related question. A week later, all participants were asked if they saw broken glass (there was none). The study examined if higher speed estimates influenced memory distortion.

Question 24

Loftus and Palmer (1974) Findings

Findings: Experiment 1

Answer 24

The mean speed estimate was calculated for each experimental group.
Smashed - 40.8 mph
Collided- 39.3 mph
Bumped- 38.1 mph
Hit- 34.0 mph
Contacted- 31.8 mph

Question 25

Loftus and Palmer (1974) Findings

Findings: Experiment 2 (1)

Answer 25

Response to ‘Did you see any broken
glass?’ were as followed:
Response Smashed Hit Control
Yes 16 7 6
No 34 43 44

Question 26

Loftus and Palmer (1974) Findings

Findings: Experiment 2 (2)

Answer 26

A week later, participants answered questions about the filmed crash, including whether they saw broken glass (none was present). In the “smashed” condition, 16 participants reported seeing broken glass, compared to 7 in the “hit” condition and 6 in the control group. This suggests that the verb “smashed” led to greater memory distortion, as participants were more than twice as likely to falsely recall broken glass compared to the other groups.

Question 27

Loftus and Palmer (1974) Conclusions

Answer 27

The study shows that the wording of a question can significantly influence a witness’s response. Loftus and Palmer suggest two explanations:

Response-bias factors: The critical word (e.g., “smashed” or “hit”) biases the participant’s answer.

Memory alteration: The critical word changes the memory itself, making the accident seem more severe.

Experiment 2 supports memory alteration, as participants in the “smashed” condition were more likely to falsely recall broken glass. This indicates that leading questions do not just influence responses but can alter the stored memory of an event.

Question 28

Evaluation: Methodology and Procedures

Loftus and Palmer (1974) Controlled experiment

Answer 28

Loftus and Palmer used a controlled experiment, which is advantageous because it establishes a clear causal relationship. By manipulating the independent variable (the verb describing the impact), they could measure its direct effect on the dependent variable (speed estimates). The laboratory setting ensured confounding variables were controlled, making it clear that changes in the dependent variable were due to the independent variable alone. This level of control is harder to achieve in field experiments or real-life scenarios, where other factors may influence behaviour.

Question 29

Loftus and Palmer (1974) Ecological validity

Answer 29

The study used film clips of accidents, which lack the realism of witnessing a real event. Participants may not take the task seriously or experience the emotional arousal of a real accident, reducing ecological validity. Real-life eyewitness testimony (EWT) may be more accurate. For instance, Foster et al. (1994) found better accuracy when participants believed their responses affected a real trial. Similarly, Yuille and Cutshall (1986) showed that witnesses of a real armed robbery provided accurate reports even after misleading questions, suggesting misleading information has less impact in real settings.

Question 30

Loftus and Palmer (1974) The sample

Answer 30

The study used US college students, which may limit the generalisability of the findings. Different groups, such as older adults, might be more or less influenced by misleading information. This could be explained by source monitoring, where eyewitnesses combine information from the event and subsequent suggestions. Research (e.g., Schacter et al., 1991) shows that elderly individuals often struggle to recall the source of their information, even if their memory of the information itself is intact. This makes them more susceptible to the effects of misleading information in eyewitness testimony compared to younger individuals.

Question 31

Ethical Issues and Social Implications

Loftus and Palmer (1974) Lack of valid consent

Answer 31

Loftus and Palmer did not obtain valid consent, as revealing the study’s true aims would have influenced participants’ behaviour. Knowing the questions were ‘leading’ might have made participants more cautious, reducing the study’s ability to reflect real-life eyewitness testimony (EWT). Deception was used to ensure realistic findings, which can be justified due to the significant impact of this research on understanding EWT inaccuracies. From the participants’ perspective, the deception was mild, as they experienced no psychological or physical harm and likely would not have refused to participate even if fully informed.

Question 32

Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Psychological harm

Answer 32

The study avoided psychological harm by using film clips of accidents instead of exposing participants to real accidents, which could have been highly distressing. A real-life scenario might have caused lasting emotional harm that could not be alleviated by debriefing. Although this reduced the realism of the study and may have affected how participants responded, it ensured that ethical guidelines were upheld by minimising the risk of psychological harm.

Question 33

Evalaution of cognitive approach

Mediational approach
(Strength)

Answer 33

A key strength of the cognitive approach is its focus on mediational processes, such as perception and memory, which occur between stimulus and response. Unlike behaviourism, which ignores what happens inside the “black box,” the cognitive approach investigates how these processes influence human behaviour. This understanding has practical applications, such as improving memory through retrieval cues, which explains everyday behaviours like making shopping lists to avoid forgetting items.

Question 34

Evaluation of cognitive approach

Important contributions
(Strength)

Answer 34

The cognitive approach has made significant contributions to psychology and real-world applications. It has influenced therapies like CBT, which effectively treat disorders such as depression, and developmental psychology, guiding teaching methods in schools. For example, Piaget’s theory highlighted that children under nine think concretely rather than abstractly, leading to the use of concrete teaching aids like counting sticks in primary schools. Additionally, cognitive research has improved memory studies, such as Elizabeth Loftus’s work on eyewitness testimony, which revealed how post-event information can distort memories. This has transformed police practices, including eliminating leading questions in interviews.

Question 35

Evaluation of cognitive approach

Scientific approach
(Strength)

Answer 35

The cognitive approach is highly scientific, relying on objective and controlled research methods. Memory studies are often conducted in strict laboratory conditions, and modern techniques such as PET and MRI scans allow researchers to pinpoint brain regions involved in cognitive processes like short- and long-term memory. This has led to the development of cognitive neuroscience, which identifies the biological mechanisms behind cognition and explores brain activity during tasks and rest (e.g., mind-wandering). By establishing causal links between emotions, thoughts, and behaviours, the cognitive approach ensures confident, evidence-based predictions.

Question 36

Evaluation of cognitive approach

Nature and nuture
(Weakness)

Answer 36

A weakness of the cognitive approach is its limited consideration of nature and nurture. While it acknowledges internal processes (nature) and external experiences (nurture) in shaping behaviour, it overlooks key aspects of both. For instance, it fails to account for the role of genes in cognition, despite twin studies highlighting their influence on intelligence. Similarly, it often ignores social and cultural factors, which are crucial for a realistic understanding of behaviour. For example, Piaget’s theory of cognitive development neglects the impact of culture and gender on children’s thinking.

Question 37

Evaluation of cognitive approach

Determinist approach (Weakness)

Answer 37

The cognitive approach is determinist as it suggests behaviour is influenced by schemas, which are acquired through direct experiences and social interactions. For instance, Piaget proposed that cognitive development involves the formation of schemas, such as a young child initially calling all four-legged animals “dogs” before refining their schemas for dogs, cats, etc. Social interactions also shape schemas, including cultural stereotypes, such as associating intelligence with glasses or fun with blonde hair. These schemas can determine how we interpret and respond to situations, highlighting the approach’s deterministic nature.

Question 38

Evaluation of cognitive approach

Mechanistic approach (Weakness)

Answer 38

A weakness of the cognitive approach is its mechanistic view, likening human behaviour to that of a machine. This stems from the approach’s reliance on computer models to explain cognitive processes, which ignores the complexity of human behaviour. For example, it overlooks the influence of social and emotional factors, as seen in mental illness. While faulty thinking patterns in depression can be addressed, the root cause may lie in life events like divorce. Furthermore, unlike computers, humans are influenced by emotions, which affect how information is processed and recalled. This comparison oversimplifies human cognition.