Past to Present - Behaviourist Approach

Question 1

Assumption 1

Answer 1

Assumption 1: Blank Slate
* When we are born our mind is like a tabula rasa’
* We are not born equipped with the ability to think and emotions/feelings have no influence over our behaviour.
* We learn through our interactions with the environment and it determines our behaviour.

Stands firmly on the nuture side of nature-nuture debate.

Question 2

Assumption 2

Answer 2

Assumption 2: Behaviour learnt through conditioning
Classical Conditioning:
Associating two things together to give the same response to both.

Question 3

Assumption 2

Classical Conditioning

Answer 3

Before conditioning:
Food (US) ——- Salivation (UR)

During Conditioning:
Bell (NS) ——– Food (UR)

After Conditioning:
Bell + Food (CS) ——– Salivation (CR)

Question 4

Assumption 2: Operant Conditioning

Answer 4

Assumption 2: Behaviour learnt through conditioning
Operant Conditioning:
Reinforcement refers to something that will increase the likelihood of a behaviour occuring again.

Question 5

Assumption 2

Positive reinforcement

Answer 5

Strengthens behaviour

Question 6

Assumption 2

Negative reinforcement

Answer 6

Strengthens behaviour BUT stops something unpleasant from happening.

Question 7

Assumption 2

Punishment

Answer 7

Weakens behaviour and therefore decreases the chance that behaviour will happen again.

Question 8

Assumption 3

Answer 8

Assumption 3: Humans and animals learn in similar ways
The principles by which animals and humans learn are the same. As a result, findings from animal studies can be applied to predict and make generalisations about human behaviour.

Question 9

Behaviourist assumptions to relationships - Assumption 1

Answer 9

Mother-child relationship:
The child is born as a blank
slate and ‘learns’ how to form relationships
from the first relationship the infant has
with their primary
caregiver.

Question 10

(2)

Behaviourist assumptions to relationships - Assumption 1

Answer 10

An infant’s first relationship serves as a template for future relationships, with secure, warm bonds leading to happy relationships, and insecure, rejecting ones leading to difficulties.

Question 11

Behaviourist assumptions to relationships - Assumption 2

Answer 11

We like people who are present when we are reinforced. They become associated with the positive reinforcement and are viewed positively.

Question 12

(2)

Behaviourist assumptions to relationships - Assumption 2

Answer 12

People’s feelings about their romantic relationships depend on their perceptions of the rewards, costs, what they deserve, and the likelihood of finding a better partner.

Question 13

Behaviourist assumptions to relationships - Assumption 3

Answer 13

Lorenz’s research on goslings showed that geese imprint on the first moving object they see after hatching. This research clearly shows that the
findings from research can be
applied to explain human
relationships.

Question 14

Systematic densitisation

Answer 14

Systematic desensitisation aims to gradually and systematically break down the faulty association (i.e. fear) and replace it with a more functional response (relaxation). This is known as counter-conditioning.

Question 15

Reciprocal Inhibition

Answer 15

Reciprocal inhibition is when you can’t feel two emotions at once.
E.g. anxiety and relaxation can’t be felt at the same time.

Question 16

In vivo densensitisation

Answer 16

Involves facing the fear in real life

Question 17

In vitro desensitisation

Answer 17

This is done in the person’s imagination.

Question 18

Main components of Systematic desensitisation (SD)

Answer 18

Step 1:
SD starts by teaching the client relaxation techniques, which they will use throughout the therapy.

Step 2:
The client, with help from the therapist, creates an anxiety hierarchy, starting from the least scary (like imagining a spider) to the most scary (like holding a spider).

Step 3:
In the final step, the client uses relaxation techniques to face each fear on their list, starting from the least scary to the most scary. They must stay calm and relaxed at each level before moving to the next one.

Question 19

(1)

Effectiveness of SD

Answer 19

Shown to be successful for overcoming problems that have been learned – e.g.. Specific phobias
Evidence:
Capafons et al (1998) found that people afraid of flying felt less fear and showed fewer physical signs of fear after 12 to 15 weeks of therapy using both in vivo and in vitro techniques

Question 20

(2)

Effectiveness of SD

Answer 20

Systematic desensitisation exposure therapies have shown success rates of around 75- 80% (McGrath et al 1990; Marks, 1990), but dropout rates are high.

Question 21

(3)

Effectiveness of SD

Answer 21

Systematic desensitisation (SD) is not always effective especially for some phobias like heights. Research shows that these phobias may have evolved to help us survive, which makes them harder to treat using conditioning techniques.

Question 22

(1)

Appropriateness of SD

Answer 22

SD can be considered an ethical therapy. Valid consent is obtained from the client before SD can begin. The client is able to withdraw from the therapy at any point during the process, and the
introduction of relaxation techniques means clients rarely feel distress.

Question 23

(2)

Appropriateness of SD

Answer 23

SD is more ethical than many other therapies. SD increases the individuals feeling of control, and the role of the therapist is to guide and help the client.

Question 24

(5 points)

Watson & Raynor’s methodology

Answer 24

• Done under controlled conditions
• Focused on a single participant named Little Albert.
• Not considered a case study because it doesn’t analyse his life in depth—just his emotional reactions.
• Not an experiment because there was only one condition and can be described as a controlled observation.
• Was an investigation to determine the effects of certain stimuli.

Question 25

Main components of Watson, J.B. and Raynor, R. (1920) Conditioned emotional reactions

Answer 25

Stage 1 of the research involved establishing a conditioned emotional response
Stage 2 of the research which occurred five days later involved transferring a conditioned response to other stimuli
Stage 3 of the research which occurred one month later involved exploring the effect of time on conditioned emotional responses

Question 26

Watson & Raynor’s Procedures

Answer 26

Stage 1:
Albert (11 months 3 days old) was initially presented with a white rat. When Albert was presented with the rat a second time, at that moment the steel bar was struck just behind his head. Albert (11 months 10 days) was presented the rat alone to see if he was affected by the previous experience. Then, the joint stimulation (rat being presented in combination with a loud noise) was then repeated five times. Albert’s behaviour was observed and recorded.

Stage 2:
Albert (11 months 15 days) was presented with a range of different stimulus, including the rat, wooden blocks, rabbit, a dog, a seal fur coat, cotton wool and Watson’s hair. At 11 months 20 days, Albert’s conditioned emotional response was ‘freshened up’ using some ‘joint simulation’, the setting was then changed to see if it would have any effect on the conditioned response. Albert was taken to a lecture hall.

Stage 3:
One month later, Albert (12 months 21 days) was finally presented with a range of different stimulus, including a Santa Claus mask, a fur coat, the rat, the rabbit, the dog and the blocks. Albert’s behaviour was observed and recorded.

Question 27

Watson and Rayner: Conditioned emotional reactions

Answer 27

Before conditioning:
White rat (NS) → No response
Loud noise (UCS) → Fear response (UCR)

During conditioning:
White rat + loud noise (NS+UCS) → Fear response (UCR)

After conditioning:
White rat (CR) → Fear response (CR)

Question 28

Watson & Raynor’s findings

Answer 28

Stage one:
• Albert initially showed no fear of the objects before conditioning.
• He was startled by the loud noise but did not cry.
• During joint stimulation (rat + loud noise), Albert became more distressed.
• When shown the rat again, he began to cry ‘and began to crawl away so rapidly he was caught with difficulty before reaching the edge of the table.’ (1920, page 314.)
• This demonstrated a conditioned emotional response to the rat.

Stage two:
• Albert’s conditioned fear of the rat transferred to other stimuli (rabbit, dog, cotton wool).
• He cried or withdrew when presented with these stimuli.
• In a different setting, he still displayed fear, though to a lesser degree.

Stage 3:

•	Over time, Albert continued to show fear responses by withdrawing, crying, and pushing away objects (fur coat, rat, rabbit).
•	His reaction to furry objects became less extreme but he clearly avoided them.
•	He whimpered and occasionally cried when presented with these objects.

Question 29

Watson & Raynor’s conclusions

Answer 29

Many phobias likely come from conditioned emotional reactions, either directly or through transfer. These responses may persist in people who are less strong-willed. Emotional issues in adults aren’t just caused by sex, as Freudians suggest, but also by conditioned and transferred responses formed in early childhood, especially in the emotions of love, fear, and rage.

Question 30

Ethical issues and social implications of Watson and Raynor’s research

Answer 30

Created fear
More psychological harm
Lasting effects

Question 31

Evaluation of Watson and Raynor’s methodology (5)

Answer 31

• Watson & Raynor had a high degree of control in their research.
• The environment (well-lit dark room) allowed control over extraneous variables.
• Controlled factors included the presentation of furry objects and the research location.
• This level of control increases experimental validity.
• The scientific methodology gives the research scientific status, making it more trustworthy than less controlled methods, like open interviews.

Question 32

(2)

Evaluation of Watson and Raynor’s methodology

Answer 32

• A negative of this research is the limited representativeness of the sample.
• The sample included only one participant—Albert, a calm, emotionally stable child.
• He was selected primarily for his emotional stability and availability (his mother worked at the hospital).
• Using only one participant makes it difficult to determine if the findings apply to other children with different behavioral responses.
• As a result, the findings may not be generalisable, limiting their application to society.

Question 33

Evaluation of Watson and Raynor’s procedures

Answer 33

• A positive aspect of the procedure is the use of baseline measurements for comparison.
• Albert’s pre-manipulation behavior was assessed to confirm he wasn’t naturally fearful.
• The trial with wooden blocks acted as a control condition, showing his fear was specific to furry objects.
• Having a baseline control condition makes the findings more scientific and links the results to Watson & Raynor’s conditioning techniques.
• This increases the credibility of the research within the scientific community.

Question 34

(2)

Evaluation of Watson and Raynor’s procedures

Answer 34

• A negative aspect of the research is that the procedures were not fully completed as planned.
• Watson and Raynor intended to use counter-conditioning to reverse Albert’s fear, but this stage was not carried out.
• Little Albert was removed from the research before his phobias could be treated, leaving him with specific phobias.
• This raises significant ethical concerns, as the procedures left the child with unresolved fears.

Question 35

Evaluating the behavourist approach

Scientific Approach (Strength)

Answer 35

Watson’s work on conditioning shows how scientific methods could be applied to psychology. Behavourism focuses on observable behaviours, making abstract concepts measurable for scientific study, leading to valid, reliable, and quantifiable data.

Question 36

Evaluating the behavourist approach

Scientific Approach
(Elaboration)

Answer 36

Scientific experiements help distinguish beliefs from facts. By testing beliefs, we can confirm their truth and develop treatments for mental disorders based on proven, reliable results rather than assumptions.

Question 37

Evaluating the behavourist approach

Scientific Approach
(However)

Answer 37

Scientific data has limitations, especially in experiments involving people. Human behaviour is unpredictable and inconsistent, making it difficult to achieve the same level of control and repeatability as in traditional sciences.

Question 38

Evaluating the behavourist approach

Focuses on the here and how (Strength)

Answer 38

Behaviourism focuses on the present, addressing symptoms rather than exploring underlying causes. For example, aversion therapy treats alcholism by creating a new response link between alcohol and nausea, reducing the behaviour without examining the root cause of the addiction.

Question 39

Evaluating the behavourist approach

Focuses on the here and now (Elaboration)

Answer 39

This approach is also evident in systematic densensitiation, where a new association between a feared stimulus and relaxation is formed. The focus is on removing symptoms, with no attempt to explore the original cause of the fear or phobia.

Question 40

Evaluating the behavourist approach

Focuses on the here and now (However)

Answer 40

While some prefer this direct approach and the sucess of these therapies shows that exploring deeper meanings, isn’t always necessary, they don’t work for everyone or all disorders.

Question 41

Evaluating the behavourist approach

Successful applications (Strength)

Question 42

Evaluating the behavourist approach

Successful applications (Elaboration)

Answer 42

Skinner (1954) further illustrated this with his development of a mechanical teaching device. He believed traditional teaching was ineffective because students learn at different paces, making reinforcement less effective. His machine allowed students to work at their own speed, providing immediate reinforcement for correct answers and feedback for incorrect ones, enhancing learning effectiveness.

Question 43

Evaluating the behavourist approach

Successful applications (However)

Answer 43

Skinner (1954) further illustrated this with his development of a mechanical teaching device. He believed traditional teaching was ineffective because students learn at different paces, making reinforcement less effective. His machine allowed students to work at their own speed, providing immediate reinforcement for correct answers and feedback for incorrect ones, enhancing learning effectiveness.

Question 44

Evaluating the behavourist approach

Emphasis on nurture (Weakness)

Answer 44

Behaviorism emphasizes nurture as the primary factor in shaping behavior, often ignoring the role of nature. Behaviorists do not consider how genetic makeup influences personality and behavior, suggesting that learning alone is sufficient. However, if that were true, everyone could become a rocket scientist or surgeon. The reality that not everyone achieves such expertise indicates that other factors are also at play.

Question 45

Evaluating the behavourist approach

Emphasis on nurture (Elaboration)

Answer 45

Moreover, concordance rates for monozygotic twins in the development of psychological disorders like schizophrenia suggest a genetic link, indicating that nature plays a role in our development. Ignoring this aspect means we do not fully understand the causes of behavior.

Question 46

Evaluating the behavourist approach

Emphasis on nurture (However)

Answer 46

Any studies involving twins should be interpreted with caution, as twins also share environmental factors. Consequently, conclusions attributing behavior to genetics may mistakenly assign nurture influences to nature. This suggests that environmental factors could be the most significant contributors to development.

Question 47

Determinist approach (Weakness)

Answer 47

Behaviorists argue that behavior is largely shaped by the associations we form with stimuli (classical conditioning) and the rewards or punishments we receive from our environment (operant conditioning). This perspective suggests that external factors control us. However, it overlooks the thought processes that happen before we act, implying that we do not make choices in our behavior.

Question 48

Evaluating the behavourist approach

Determinist approach (Elaboration)

Answer 48

This belief that our environment dictates our actions undermines the idea of free will, suggesting that we don’t truly make choices or have personal or moral responsibility for our behavior. As a result, it implies that individuals cannot be held accountable for their wrongdoing; instead, they should just be punished to change their behavior rather than being taught to think responsibly.

Question 49

Evaluating the behavourist approach

Determinist approach (However)

Answer 49

The aim of psychology is to be able to predict behaviour. We can only do this if we assume that people do not have free will, and that behaviour is indeed, predetermined.

Question 50

Evaluating the behavourist approach

More relevant to animals than humans (Weakness)

Answer 50

Behaviorism is more relevant to animals than to humans. Its foundations are based on experiments with non-human animals, such as the research conducted by Pavlov and Skinner. For example, Wolpe (1958) created a phobia in cats by placing them in cages and administering electric shocks. He found that by placing food near a cage similar to the original, he could reduce the anxiety response. The act of eating diminished their anxiety, allowing the cats to eventually be placed in similar cages without showing signs of fear.

Question 51

Evaluating the behavourist approach

More relevant to animals than humans (Elaboration)

Answer 51

Human anxiety may not respond in the same way as animal behavior. For instance, Wolpe (1973) treated a woman with a fear of insects, but systematic desensitization did not cure her phobia. It was discovered that her fear was tied to her marital issues, as her husband was nicknamed after an insect. This indicated that her phobia was not simply a result of conditioning but represented deeper personal problems. Wolpe’s approach of marital counseling succeeded where systematic desensitisation failed, highlighting that humans are much more complex than animals.

Question 52

Evaluating the behavourist approach

More relevant to animals than humans (However)

Answer 52

Researching on animals does allow us to test out ethically hypothesis which may not be possible on humans (e.g. conditioning fears).