Past to Present - Biological Approach Flashcards
Biological Approach
Genes, neurotransmitters, hormones, evolution.
Assumption 1
Evolutionary influences
Assumption 1- Evolutionary influences
Evolutionary psychologists explain behavior using Darwin’s Theory of Evolution, which states that species survive through natural selection. Individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on these traits to their offspring. This process, known as “survival of the fittest,” ensures that beneficial adaptations become more common over generations. Over time, this leads to the evolution of traits that enhance survival and reproduction in changing environments.
Assumption 1: Psychological example
Trivers’ theory suggests that romantic relationships are shaped by differences in parental investment. Women invest more due to pregnancy and childbirth, so they prefer mates with resources and ambition to support offspring. Men, who invest less and can father many children, seek youthful, fertile partners to maximise reproductive success.
Assumption 2
Localisation of brain function
Assumption 2: Localisation of brain function
The cerebral cortex can be divided into four sections, which
are known as lobes:
Frontal lobe: located at the front of the brain. Responsible for problem solving.
Parietal lobe: located in the middle section of the brain. Responsible for sensory processes such as pain.
Occipital lobe: located at the back of the brain. Responsible for interpreting visual stimuli.
Temporal lobe: located on the bottom section of the brain. Responsible for auditory information.
Assumption 2: Psychological example
The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) influences sexual desire and mate selection by assessing attractiveness. Ishai (2007) found increased OFC activity in both males and females when viewing attractive faces, suggesting that the OFC plays a key role in romantic relationship formation by responding to rewarding stimuli.
Assumption 3
Neurotransmitters
Assumption 3- Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons across the synapse. They convert electrical signals into chemical signals to cross the synapse, then back into electrical signals in the next neuron.
Dopamine: Controls movement and emotions; low levels are linked to depression.
Serotonin: Regulates mood, sleep, eating, and digestion.
Assumption 3: Psychological example
Aron et al. (2008) found that dopamine activates the brain’s reward centers, enhancing the effects of sex hormones. This suggests dopamine plays a key role in romantic attraction, making meeting an attractive mate feel rewarding and increasing feelings of connection.
Evolutionary influences to the formation of relationships
The biological approach links relationship formation to evolution. Trivers’ theory suggests females invest more in offspring due to pregnancy risks, so they are selective in mates. They prefer males with resources (e.g., ambition, shelter, finances) to ensure offspring survival, often favouring older males who can provide stability.
(2)
Evolutionary influences to the formation of relationships
Males invest less in offspring after conception, so they seek youthful, fertile females. Traits like smooth skin, white teeth, wide hips, and large breasts signal good genes. Symons suggested men prefer women with high reproductive value, while Williams argued they prioritise peak fertility, usually around age 23.
Localisation of brain function to the formation of relationships
The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) helps regulate impulse control and mate selection by assessing potential rewards. Little et al. (2011) found that the OFC activates when observing attractive faces, suggesting it plays a key role in evaluating mate desirability.
Neurotransmitters to the formation of relationships
Oxytocin is a hormone that acts as a chemical messenger in the brain, playing a key role in pregnancy and childbirth behaviors, such as contractions and milk production. High levels of oxytocin promote nurturing behaviors in mothers towards their offspring.
Skin-to-skin contact after birth triggers the release of oxytocin, allowing the mother and baby to bond by learning each other’s unique scent. Oxytocin also aids the newborn in latching onto the mother’s breast, and during breastfeeding, oxytocin floods the body, further strengthening the mother-baby relationship.
Biological approach applied to therapy
The biological approach assumes that mental disorders like depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia have a physiological cause. This is known as the medical model, which treats mental illnesses like physical illnesses, with identifiable symptoms and a physical cause. Treatment typically involves physical methods such as drug therapy.
Neurotransmitters applied to drug therapy
The biological approach suggests that changes in neurotransmitter systems affect mood, perception, and behaviour. Drug therapy works by increasing or blocking neurotransmitter activity, helping to regulate emotions, thoughts, and actions, which can treat mental disorders.
Localisation of brain function applied to drug therapy
Localisation of brain function means that different brain areas control different functions. Drugs target specific brain regions linked to psychological disorders. For example, the limbic system regulates emotions, so disturbances in this area can impact mood.
Main components of drug therapy
Antipsychotic drugs
Antidepressant drugs
Antianxiety drugs
Drug therapy
Antipsychotic drugs
Antipsychotic drugs treat disorders like schizophrenia by targeting dopamine.
Conventional antipsychotics block dopamine receptors, reducing symptoms like delusions and hallucinations, but can cause side effects like tardive dyskinesia.
Atypical antipsychotics (e.g., Clozaril) block dopamine receptors temporarily, then quickly dissociate, reducing side effects while still treating symptoms effectively.
Antidepressants drugs
Antidepressant drugs treat depression by increasing serotonin levels in the brain. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), like Prozac, work by blocking the reuptake of serotonin into the presynaptic cell, leaving more serotonin in the synapse. This prolongs the activity of serotonin, making nerve signal transmission easier and improving mood. Antidepressants can also either slow the reabsorption of serotonin or block the enzyme that breaks it down, increasing its availability and helping to alleviate depressive symptoms.
Effectiveness of drug therapy
Drugs versus placebo
Drug treatments for mental health disorders are generally effective, as shown by randomised control trials comparing them to placebos. Soomro et al. (2008) reviewed 17 studies on SSRIs for OCD and found them more effective than placebos in reducing symptoms over three months. Similarly, Kahn et al. (1986) found benzodiazepines (BZs) to be significantly superior to placebos in an eight-week study. However, most research focuses on short-term effects (3-4 months), and there is limited data on the long-term effectiveness of these treatments (Koran et al., 2007).
Effectiveness of drug therapy
Side effects
Although drugs are effective for treating psychological disorders, they can cause serious side effects. SSRIs commonly lead to nausea, headaches, and insomnia (Soomro et al., 2008), which may discourage patients from continuing their treatment. Tricyclic antidepressants have even more severe side effects, such as hallucinations and irregular heartbeat, so they are typically prescribed only when SSRIs are ineffective.
Effectiveness of drug therapy
Symptoms not cause
A key criticism of drug therapy is that it treats symptoms rather than the underlying cause of psychological disorders. For example, if depression stems from childhood trauma, antidepressants may offer short-term relief but won’t address the root cause. This can result in “revolving door syndrome,” where patients repeatedly return for treatment because their condition is never fully cured.
Effectiveness of drug therapy
Comparison with other treatments
Compared to psychotherapy, drug therapy is cheaper and more time-efficient. In the UK, medications are available on the NHS, making them affordable for patients. Unlike psychotherapy, which requires regular sessions, drug therapy needs minimal practitioner involvement, with follow-ups only every few months to assess progress. This makes drug therapy an efficient and easily administered treatment option.
Evaluation: Ethical issues
Use of placebos
Drug therapy raises ethical concerns, particularly regarding the use of placebos in research. A key ethical principle is that patients should not receive a treatment known to be inferior. If effective drugs already exist, they should be used as the control condition rather than placebos, as giving placebos denies patients proper treatment and may worsen their condition.
Evaluation: Ethical issues
Patient information
Valid consent is an ethical issue in drug therapy, as patients may struggle to fully understand potential side effects or be in a mental state that prevents informed decision-making. Doctors may also withhold information, such as the limited effectiveness of some drugs, or exaggerate benefits while failing to present alternative therapies. This raises concerns about whether patients are truly making an informed choice.
Methodology: Raine, Buchsbaum and LaCasse (1997)
Raine et al. (1997) used a quasi-experiment with a matched pairs design to study brain dysfunction in murderers pleading not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI). The experimental group/murderers were 39 males and 2 females, with a mean age of 34.3 years. They were referred to the University of California.
Methodology
Reasons for referral
The reasons for referral included:
6 schizophrenics
23 with a history of head injury or organic brain damage
3 with a history of psychoactive substance abuse
2 with affective disorder
2 with epilepsy
3 with a history of hyperactivity and learning disability
2 with passive-aggressive or paranoid personality
disorder.
Methodology
Control group
The control group in Raine et al. (1997) was matched to the murderers by sex and age. The six schizophrenic murderers were matched with six schizophrenic controls from a mental hospital. The remaining controls had no history of psychiatric or physical illness, nor any family history of psychiatric conditions. None of the controls were taking medication.
Procedures: Raine, Buchsbaum and LaCasse (1997)
Raine et al. (1997) used opportunity sampling to study brain activity in murderers pleading NGRI. They injected participants with fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG), a tracer that highlights active brain areas, and then had them perform a continuous performance task (CPT) to activate these brain areas. They practiced the task before the FDG injection and began it 30 seconds before to avoid novelty effects. After 32 minutes, a PET scan was done, capturing 10 horizontal brain slices using specific techniques. These methods make the study replicable.
Raine et. al (1997) Findings
Raine et al. (1997) found several key differences in brain activity between murderers and controls. Murderers had lower glucose metabolism overall, especially in the left angular gyrus of the parietal lobe. However, their temporal lobe activity was similar to controls. They showed higher glucose metabolism in the occipital lobe and had abnormal brain asymmetry, with reduced activity in the left amygdala and hippocampus and increased activity in the right amygdala and hippocampus. No significant differences were found in midbrain and cerebellum activity. Both groups performed similarly on the continuous performance task (CPT).
Raine et. al (1997) Conclusions
Raine et al. (1997) cautioned that their findings should not be seen as proof that violence is biologically determined. They emphasised the role of social, psychological, cultural, and situational factors in contributing to violent behavior. The study does not suggest that murderers pleading NGRI are not responsible for their actions, nor does it support using PET scans as a diagnostic tool. Additionally, the research does not establish a causal link between brain dysfunction and violence, and the findings cannot be generalised to other violent offenders.
Evaluation of classic research
Methodology and Procedures
Raine et al. (1997) conducted a quasi-experiment because the independent variable (criminal status) was not manipulated. This means causal conclusions can’t be drawn. They emphasised that violent behavior is influenced by biology, but also by social, psychological, and situational factors. A limitation of this method is that it doesn’t allow conclusions about cause and effect, and the findings could be misinterpreted as suggesting that criminal behavior is predetermined.
Evaluation of classic research
Methodology and Procedures (2)
Raine et al. (1997) used PET scans to study brain activity, a technique that provides real-time insights into brain function. Unlike post-mortem examinations, which can’t link brain physiology to behavior, PET scans allow detailed analysis of brain regions. This method helped Raine et al. observe differences in how murderers and controls process information.
Evaluation of classic research
Methodology and Procedures (3)
The sample in Raine et al. (1997) was not representative of all violent individuals, as the murderers had specific mental impairments. The findings apply only to this group of violent offenders, those with mental impairments who committed murder. Since many violent crimes don’t involve murder, the conclusions are limited to this specific subset of violent offenders.
Evaluation
Alternative evidence
Raine has continued exploring the relationship between brain dysfunction and criminal behavior. A meta-analysis by Yang and Raine (2009) found that antisocial and violent individuals show reduced prefrontal activity. Genetic studies, such as Tihonen et al. (2015), suggest an association between the MAOA gene and an increased likelihood of violent crime. However, genes are predisposing factors, not deterministic. James Fallon, a neuroscientist, analysed his own genetic and brain traits linked to violent behavior but was not a criminal. He argued that positive childhood experiences prevented his genetic predisposition from expressing, supporting a diathesis-stress model, where genetic factors are triggered by stressors like a difficult childhood.
Ethics of Raine’s research
A key ethical issue in Raine et al.’s (1997) study is the validity of consent, as the participants were murderers who pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity. This raises concerns about their mental competence to fully understand the study’s procedures. They might not have comprehended the performance task, which could have harmed their self-esteem. Participants may also have been unclear about the PET scan process, potentially causing distress. Additionally, as prisoners, they may not have fully understood their right to withdraw from the study, possibly feeling coerced to continue.
Ethics of Raine’s research (2)
Another ethical concern is the social sensitivity of the research. Socially sensitive research can have wider societal consequences, like studies on drug addiction or homosexuality. In this case, Raine et al.’s research on murderers may suggest they are biologically predisposed to violence, which could lead to unfair treatment of others with similar brain abnormalities. These individuals might face imprisonment without considering their social context. This highlights the need for careful handling of such research to avoid stigmatising or disadvantaging people.
Evaluating the biological approach
Scientific Approach (Strength)
Point: The biological approach is scientific because it focuses on measurable factors like brain structures and neurotransmitters.
Evidence: Research on drug therapy links psychoactive drugs to changes in neurotransmitter activity. Psychosurgery is based on studies showing how brain areas influence behaviour. Raine et al. (1997) used PET scans to compare brain activity in murderers (pleading NGRI) and non-murderers.
Explain: These methods allow researchers to conduct controlled, objective studies, leading to reliable explanations for human behaviour.
Link: The biological approach’s focus on measurable factors ensures it remains scientific and grounded in empirical evidence.
Evaluating the biological approach
Determinist Approach (Strength)
Point: The biological approach is determinist, meaning it views behaviour as being caused by biological factors.
Evidence: Schizophrenia is linked to high dopamine levels—amphetamine increases dopamine and can trigger schizophrenia-like symptoms, while antipsychotic drugs reduce dopamine and alleviate symptoms. OCD is linked to overactive brain areas, and psychosurgery (cingulotomy) targets these areas to help reduce symptoms.
Explain: By identifying the biological causes of behaviour, psychologists can develop effective treatments to address these issues.
Link: Understanding the biological causes of behaviour allows for treatments that can improve lives, such as drugs or psychosurgery to treat mental disorders.
Evaluating the biological approach
Successful applications (Strength)
Point: The biological approach has practical applications in treating mental disorders and reducing criminal behaviour.
Evidence: Cherek et al. (2002) found that SSRIs reduced aggression and impulsivity in criminals, helping lower reoffending rates. Psychosurgery like capsulotomy has a 67% success rate in treating OCD (Cosgrove & Rauch, 2001). Lithium effectively treats bipolar disorder in 60%+ of cases (Viguera et al., 2000).
Explain: These treatments show that biological interventions can significantly improve mental health, manage behaviour, and help individuals lead more normal lives.
Link: Despite some mixed results, biological treatments like drugs and surgery remain widely used due to their accessibility and effectiveness in improving well-being.
Evaluating the biological approach
Reductionist Approach (Weakness)
Point: A key weakness of the biological approach is that it is reductionist, simplifying complex behaviours into basic biological processes.
Evidence: Stress is linked to adrenaline levels, and schizophrenia is connected to chemical imbalances. R.D. Laing (1965) argued that reducing mental illness to brain chemistry overlooks the emotional distress experienced by sufferers.
Explain: While reductionism helps researchers study biological systems, it risks ignoring important psychological and social factors that contribute to behaviour.
Link: Over-simplification of behaviour can limit treatment options, as focusing only on biology may prevent a more holistic, well-rounded approach to mental health.
Evaluating the biological approach
Nature rather than nuture (Weakness)
Point: A major weakness of the biological approach is that it emphasises nature (biological factors) over nurture (life experiences and psychological factors).
Evidence: In explaining schizophrenia, the biological approach focuses on neurotransmitter imbalances without considering how patients feel about their condition. Biological treatments target brain chemistry rather than addressing emotional or environmental factors.
Explain: This focus on biological factors may overlook the psychological and social aspects of mental illness, leading to incomplete treatments.
Link: A more balanced approach, considering both biological and environmental factors, could provide more effective and comprehensive treatments.
Evaluating the biological approach
Individual differences
(Weakness)
Point: The biological approach ignores individual differences, assuming everyone’s biology works the same way.
Evidence: People react differently to stress; some produce more adrenaline than others. Research is often male-biased, as studies tend to avoid using women due to hormone cycles. Taylor et al. (2000) found that men typically exhibit fight-or-flight responses, while women show a tend-and-befriend response due to higher oxytocin levels.
Explain: This lack of consideration for individual and gender differences may lead to incomplete or inaccurate conclusions about human behavior.
Link: A more inclusive approach that considers individual and gender differences would provide a more accurate understanding of biological influences on behavior.
