Past to Present - Biological Approach

Question 1

Assumption 1

Answer 1

Evolutionary influences

Question 2

Assumption 1- Evolutionary influences

Answer 2

Evolutionary psychologists explain human behavior using Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution, which states that species survive through natural selection. This process means that individuals who adapt well to their environment are more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on their advantageous traits. These traits are passed down to offspring, who are more likely to succeed and evolve in their changing environment. This cycle of passing on advantageous genes is known as “survival of the fittest.” Over time, individuals with the best adaptations are more likely to survive and reproduce, ensuring these traits persist in future generations.

Question 3

Assumption 1: Psychological example

Answer 3

Trivers argued that the formation of romantic relationships is influenced by each sex’s different level of investment in offspring survival. Females have a higher investment due to the physical risks of pregnancy and childbirth, so they seek a male with ambition, resources, and the ability to provide for both her and her child. In contrast, males invest less in offspring and can father many children in a short time. As a result, men tend to seek fertile, youthful women to maximise their reproductive success.

Question 4

Assumption 2

Answer 4

Localisation of brain function

Question 5

Assumption 2: Localisation of brain function

Answer 5

The cerebral cortex can be divided into four sections, which
are known as lobes:

Frontal lobe: located at the front of the brain. Responsible for problem solving.

Parietal lobe: located in the middle section of the brain. Responsible for sensory processes such as pain.

Occipital lobe: located at the back of the brain. Responsible for interpreting visual stimuli.

Temporal lobe: located on the bottom section of the brain. Responsible for auditory information.

Question 6

Assumption 2: Psychological example

Answer 6

The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) influences sexual desire and mate selection by determining whether a potential mate is perceived as desirable. Viewing beautiful faces should activate the OFC, as it is rewarding from a mate selection perspective. Ishai (2007) found that both males and females showed increased OFC activity when observing attractive faces, providing evidence that the localisation of brain function, specifically the OFC, plays a role in the formation of romantic relationships.

Question 7

Assumption 3

Answer 7

Neurotransmitters

Question 8

Assumption 3- Neurotransmitters

Answer 8

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals from the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron across the synapse. They change from electrical signals into chemical signals to cross the synapse and then back into electrical signals once they reach the postsynaptic neuron, continuing the process. Different neurotransmitters have different functions:

Dopamine: Controls bodily movements and emotional responses. A deficiency in dopamine is linked to mental health conditions like depression.
Serotonin: Affects emotions and motor skills, and supports functions like sleeping, eating, and digestion.

Question 9

Assumption 3: Psychological example

Answer 9

Aron et al. (2008) concluded that dopamine plays a crucial role in the formation of romantic relationships by activating the brain’s reward centers and amplifying the effects of sex hormones. This highlights the powerful neurological impact of meeting an attractive mate, even at first sight, driving feelings of attraction and connection.

Question 10

Evolutionary influences to the formation of relationships

Answer 10

The biological approach explains relationship formation through evolutionary influences. Trivers proposed that romantic relationships are influenced by differing parental investments. Females invest heavily in offspring due to pregnancy risks and childcare, so they are selective in mate choice. They prefer males with resources like ambition, shelter, and financial stability to ensure survival of their offspring. Older males are often favoured for their ability to provide these.

Question 11

(2)

Evolutionary influences to the formation of relationships

Answer 11

In contrast, males have minimal physical investment in offspring after conception, so they prioritise youth and reproductive health in females. Traits like smooth skin, white teeth, wide hips, and large breasts signal good genes and fertility. Symons suggested males seek females with high reproductive value (e.g., potential for many children), but Williams argued males prioritize high fertility, typically found in women around age 23, rather than very young females.

Question 12

Localisation of brain function to the formation of relationships

Answer 12

The localisation of brain function explains relationship formation by focusing on the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), located in the frontal lobe. The OFC plays a key role in impulse control and response inhibition, deciding whether to act on a sexual stimulus based on potential rewards.

Little et al. (2011) found that observing beauty in the opposite sex activates the OFC in both males and females. This suggests the OFC helps assess mate desirability, guiding individuals to act on biological signals when a mate is deemed suitable.

Question 13

Neurotransmitters to the formation of relationships

Answer 13

Oxytocin is a hormone that acts as a chemical messenger in the brain, closely linked to pregnancy and birth behaviours like contractions and breast milk production. High levels of oxytocin make mothers more nurturing to their offspring.

Skin-to-skin contact after birth triggers oxytocin release, allowing the mother and baby to learn each other’s unique scent, forming their first bond. Oxytocin also helps the new-born latch onto the mother’s breast, and during breastfeeding, oxytocin floods the body, further strengthening the mother-baby relationship.

Question 14

Biological approach applied to therapy

Answer 14

The biological approach assumes that disorders like depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia have a physiological cause. This is known as the medical model, which views mental illnesses like physical illnesses—with identifiable symptoms and a physical cause—treatable through physical methods like drug therapy.

Question 15

Neurotransmitters applied to drug therapy

Answer 15

The biological approach suggests that changes in neurotransmitter systems affect mood, perception, and behaviour. Drug therapy works by increasing or blocking neurotransmitter activity to regulate emotions, thoughts, and actions, helping to treat mental disorders.

Question 16

Localisation of brain function applied to drug therapy

Answer 16

Localisation of brain function means that different brain areas control different functions. Drugs target specific brain regions linked to psychological disorders. For example, the limbic system regulates emotions, so disturbances in this area can impact mood.

Question 18

Main components of drug therapy

Answer 18

Antipsychotic drugs
Antidepressant drugs
Antianxiety drugs

Question 19

Drug therapy

Antipsychotic drugs

Answer 19

Antipsychotic drugs treat psychotic disorders like schizophrenia, where patients lose touch with reality. Conventional antipsychotics reduce positive symptoms (e.g., delusions, hallucinations) by blocking dopamine receptors, preventing dopamine stimulation. Atypical antipsychotics (e.g., Clozaril) temporarily block dopamine receptors before quickly dissociating, allowing normal dopamine transmission. This reduces side effects like tardive dyskinesia (involuntary mouth and tongue movements) compared to conventional drugs.

Question 20

Antidepressants drugs

Answer 20

Antidepressant drugs treat depression by increasing neurotransmitter levels, particularly serotonin. Depression is linked to insufficient serotonin in the synapse. Normally, neurotransmitters are reabsorbed and broken down by enzymes, but antidepressants work by either slowing reabsorption or blocking enzyme breakdown, increasing serotonin availability. The most common type, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) like Prozac, block the reuptake of serotonin into the presynaptic cell, leaving more in the synapse. This prolongs serotonin activity, making nerve signal transmission easier and improving mood.

Question 21

Effectiveness of drug therapy

Drugs versus placebo

Answer 21

Drug treatments are generally effective, as shown by randomised control trials comparing them to placebos. Soomro et al. (2008) reviewed 17 studies on SSRIs for OCD and found them more effective than placebos in reducing symptoms over three months. Kahn et al. (1986) also found benzodiazepines (BZs) significantly superior to placebos in an eight-week study. However, most research only covers short-term effects (3–4 months), meaning there is limited data on long-term effectiveness (Koran et al., 2007).

Question 22

Effectiveness of drug therapy

Side effects

Answer 22

Although drugs are effective for treating psychological disorders, they can cause serious side effects. SSRIs commonly lead to nausea, headaches, and insomnia (Soomro et al., 2008), which may discourage patients from taking them. Tricyclic antidepressants have even more severe side effects, such as hallucinations and irregular heartbeat, so they are usually only prescribed when SSRIs are ineffective.

Question 23

Effectiveness of drug therapy

Symptoms not cause

Answer 23

A key criticism of drug therapy is that it treats symptoms rather than the underlying cause of psychological disorders. For example, if depression stems from childhood trauma, antidepressants may provide short-term relief but will not resolve the root issue. This can lead to ‘revolving door syndrome,’ where patients repeatedly return for treatment as their condition is never fully cured.

Question 24

Effectiveness of drug therapy

Comparison with other treatments

Answer 24

Compared to psychotherapy, drug therapy is a cheaper and more time-efficient treatment. In the UK, medications are available on the NHS, making them affordable for patients. Unlike psychotherapy, which requires regular sessions, drug therapy requires minimal practitioner involvement, with follow-ups only every few months to assess progress. This makes drug therapy an efficient and easily administered treatment option.

Question 25

Evaluation: Ethical issues

Use of placebos

Answer 25

Drug therapy raises ethical concerns, particularly regarding the use of placebos in research. A key ethical principle is that patients should not receive a treatment known to be inferior. If effective drugs already exist, they should be used as the control condition rather than placebos, as giving placebos denies patients proper treatment and may worsen their condition.

Question 26

Evaluation: Ethical issues

Patient information

Answer 26

Valid consent is an ethical issue in drug therapy, as patients may struggle to fully understand potential side effects or be in a mental state that prevents informed decision-making. Doctors may also withhold information, such as the limited effectiveness of some drugs, or exaggerate benefits while failing to present alternative therapies. This raises concerns about whether patients are truly making an informed choice.

Question 27

Methodology: Raine, Buchsbaum and LaCasse (1997)

Answer 27

Raine et al. (1997) used a quasi-experiment with a matched pairs design to study brain dysfunction in murderers pleading not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI). The experimental group/murderers were 39 males and 2 females, with a mean age of 34.3 years. They were referred to the University of California.

Question 28

Methodology

Reasons for referral

Answer 28

The reasons for referral included:
6 schizophrenics
23 with a history of head injury or organic brain damage
3 with a history of psychoactive substance abuse
2 with affective disorder
2 with epilepsy
3 with a history of hyperactivity and learning disability
2 with passive-aggressive or paranoid personality
disorder.

Question 29

Methodology

Control group

Answer 29

The control group in Raine et al. (1997) was matched to the murderers by sex and age. The six schizophrenic murderers were matched with six schizophrenic controls from a mental hospital. The remaining controls had no history of psychiatric or physical illness, nor any family history of psychiatric conditions. None of the controls were taking medication.

Question 30

Procedures: Raine, Buchsbaum and LaCasse (1997)

Answer 30

Raine et al. (1997) used opportunity sampling to obtain their sample. A PET scan was used to study brain activity, with participants receiving an injection of fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG), a tracer that highlights active brain areas. All participants performed a continuous performance task (CPT) to activate target brain areas. Participants practiced the CPT before the FDG injection and began the task 30 seconds before the injection to avoid labelling the initial task novelty. Thirty-two minutes after the injection, a PET scan was conducted, capturing ten horizontal brain slices using the cortical peel and box techniques. The detailed scanning methods ensure the study can be replicated.

Question 31

Raine et. al (1997) Findings

Answer 31

Raine et al. (1997) found several differences in brain activity between murderers and controls. The murderers had significantly lower glucose metabolism in the brain overall, particularly in the left angular gyrus of the parietal lobe. However, their temporal lobe glucose metabolism was similar to the controls. Murderers showed higher glucose metabolism in the occipital lobe and had abnormal brain asymmetry, with reduced left and increased right amygdala and hippocampus activity compared to controls. No significant differences were found in midbrain and cerebellum activity. Both groups performed similarly on the continuous performance task.

Question 32

Raine et. al (1997) Conclusions

Answer 32

Raine et al. (1997) stated that their findings should not be interpreted as proof that violence is biologically determined. They emphasized the importance of social, psychological, cultural, and situational factors in predisposing individuals to violence. The data do not suggest that murderers pleading NGRI are not responsible for their actions, nor do they support the use of PET scans as a diagnostic tool. Additionally, the study does not establish a causal link between brain dysfunction and violence, and the findings cannot be generalized from NGRI murderers to other violent offenders.

Question 33

Evaluation of classic research

Methodology and Procedures

Answer 33

Raine et al. (1997) conducted a quasi-experiment because the independent variable (criminal status) was an existing condition, not manipulated by the experimenter. This means that causal conclusions cannot be drawn from the study. As Raine et al. emphasised, their findings do not prove that violent behavior is solely determined by biology; social, psychological, and situational factors also play a role. A limitation of this method is that it does not allow for conclusions about cause and effect. There is a risk that the findings could be misinterpreted as suggesting that criminal behavior is predetermined and inevitable.

Question 34

Evaluation of classic research

Methodology and Procedures (2)

Answer 34

Raine et al. (1997) used PET scans to collect data, a technique that allows researchers to study the brain in ways that were not possible until recently. Unlike post-mortem examinations, which cannot link brain physiology to behavior, PET scans enable detailed analysis of brain regions and provide insights into brain activity in real time. This method allowed Raine et al. to observe how the brains of murderers and controls differed in processing information.

Question 35

Evaluation of classic research

Methodology and Procedures (3)

Answer 35

The sample in Raine et al. (1997) was not representative of all violent individuals, as the murderers included in the study had specific mental impairments. Raine et al. acknowledge that the findings only apply to this particular group of violent offenders—those with recognised mental impairments and who committed murder. Since many violent crimes do not involve murder, the conclusions are limited to this specific subset of violent offenders.

Question 36

Evaluation

Alternative evidence

Answer 36

Raine has continued to explore the relationship between brain dysfunction and criminal behavior. A meta-analysis by Yang and Raine (2009) concluded that antisocial and violent individuals show reduced prefrontal activity. Genetic studies, such as one by Tihonen et al. (2015), have found an association between the MAOA gene and increased likelihood of violent crime. However, it is important to remember that genes are predisposing factors, not deterministic. James Fallon, a neuroscientist, analyzed his own genetic and brain characteristics linked to violent behavior but was not a criminal. He argued that positive childhood experiences prevented the expression of his genetic predisposition, suggesting a diathesis-stress model, where genetic predisposition is only triggered by certain stressors like a difficult childhood.

Question 37

Ethics of Raine’s research

Answer 37

A key ethical issue in Raine et al.’s (1997) study is the validity of consent, as the participants were murderers who pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity. This raises concerns about their mental competence to fully understand the study’s procedures. They may not have comprehended the demands of the performance task, which could have caused psychological harm by lowering their self-esteem. Additionally, participants may not have fully understood the PET scan process, potentially leading to distress. There is also the concern that as prisoners, they may not have fully understood their right to withdraw from the study at any time, potentially feeling coerced to continue.

Question 38

Ethics of Raine’s research (2)

Answer 38

Another ethical concern is the social sensitivity of the research. Socially sensitive research refers to studies that can have wider consequences for society, such as those on drug addiction or homosexuality. In this case, the research on murderers raises questions about whether it advances our understanding of criminal behavior. If the findings suggest that murderers are biologically predisposed, rather than influenced by their environment, individuals with similar brain abnormalities could face negative consequences, such as being imprisoned without consideration of their social context. This highlights the importance of carefully considering how such research is conducted and reported to avoid stigmatising or disadvantaging individuals.

Question 39

Evaluating the biological approach

Scientific Approach (Strength)

Answer 39

The biological approach is scientific because it studies measurable factors like brain structures and neurotransmitters. This allows researchers to carry out controlled and objective studies. For example, drug therapy research links psychoactive drugs to neurotransmitter activity, while psychosurgery is based on studies showing how different brain areas control behaviour. Raine et al. used PET scans to compare the brain activity of murderers (pleading NGRI) with non-murderers. Since the biological approach relies on clear, testable methods, it helps psychologists find reliable explanations for behaviour.

Question 40

Evaluating the biological approach

Determinist Approach (Strength)

Answer 40

The biological approach is determinist, meaning behaviour is seen as being caused by biological factors. This is useful because understanding these causes helps in treating disorders. For example, schizophrenia is linked to high dopamine levels—amphetamine increases dopamine and can cause schizophrenia-like symptoms, while antipsychotic drugs reduce dopamine and relieve symptoms. Similarly, OCD is linked to overactive brain areas, and psychosurgery (cingulotomy) helps by targeting these areas. Knowing what causes behaviour allows psychologists to develop treatments, such as stress management to prevent illness or drugs to treat mental disorders, improving lives.

Question 41

Evaluating the biological approach

Successful applications (Strength)

Answer 41

The biological approach has practical applications in treating mental disorders and reducing criminal behaviour. Research shows that abnormal neurotransmitter levels influence behaviour; for example, Cherek et al. (2002) found that criminals given SSRIs for 21 days showed less aggression and impulsivity than those on placebos, helping to lower reoffending rates.

In mental health treatment, psychosurgery like capsulotomy has a 67% success rate for OCD (Cosgrove & Rauch, 2001), while drug therapy allows many to live normal lives outside hospitals.

For bipolar disorder, the drug lithium has been effective in 60%+ of cases (Viguera et al., 2000). Although drug therapy has mixed results, it remains a widely used and accessible treatment option, demonstrating the biological approach’s success in improving lives.

Question 42

Evaluating the biological approach

Reductionist Approach (Weakness)

Answer 42

A key weakness of the biological approach is that it is reductionist, meaning it simplifies complex behaviours into basic biological processes, such as linking stress to adrenaline levels or schizophrenia to chemical imbalances. While reductionism helps researchers study biological systems, it risks ignoring important psychological and social factors. R.D. Laing (1965) argued that reducing mental illness to brain chemistry overlooks the emotional distress experienced by sufferers, making it an incomplete explanation. Over-simplification may also limit treatment options, as understanding behaviour solely through biology might prevent a more holistic approach to mental health.

Question 43

Evaluating the biological approach

Nature rather than nuture (Weakness)

Answer 43

A major weakness of the biological approach is that it emphasises nature over nurture, focusing on biological factors while overlooking the influence of life experiences and psychological factors. For example, in explaining schizophrenia, this approach prioritises neurotransmitter imbalances rather than considering how patients feel about their condition. Similarly, biological treatments aim to correct brain chemistry rather than engaging with patients emotionally or addressing environmental triggers. This narrow focus may lead to incomplete treatments that fail to tackle the root causes of mental illness.

Question 44

Evaluating the biological approach

Individual differences
(Weakness)

Answer 44

The biological approach ignores individual differences because it assumes everyone’s biology works the same way. However, people react differently to stress—some produce more adrenaline than others. Research is also male-biased because studies often avoid using women due to hormone cycles, which can lead to wrong conclusions. For example, Taylor et al. (2000) found that men show fight-or-flight, but women tend and befriend due to higher oxytocin levels. This shows the biological approach overlooks gender and individual differences.