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Pathology Midterm > (part 1) Cell Injury - Lecture 1 > Flashcards

(part 1) Cell Injury - Lecture 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is pathology?
also break down the word

A

pathology is the study of disease by scientific methods

patho = disease
logy = study

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2
Q

pathology studies these 4 aspects of disease:

A

-etiology
-pathogenesis
-morphological changes
-functional derangements and clinical significance

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3
Q

what does etiology mean?
how is etiology classified?

A

etiology means the cause of the disease

primary etiology
idiopathic

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4
Q

differentiate between the types of etiology

A

primary etiology means the cause of the disease is known

if the cause is UNKNOWN, it is idiopathic

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5
Q

which type of etiology allows us to make diagnoses, understand disease, and develop treatment for the disease?

A

PRIMARY etiology

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6
Q

etiology is followed by ______

A

pathogenesis

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7
Q

what are the major classes of etiologic factors?

A

genetic and acquired

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8
Q

what does pathogenesis mean?

A

the mechanism through which the cause operates to produce the pathological and clinical manifestations

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9
Q

___ leads to morphological changes

A

pathogenesis

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10
Q

the pathogenetic mechanisms could take place in the ___ or ___ period

A

latent or incubation

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11
Q

define morphological changes

A

structural alterations in cells or tissues that occur following the PATHOGENESIS MECHANISMS

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12
Q

what are the classes of morphological changes?

A

gross and microscopic morphological changes

gross changes can be seen with the naked eye and microscopic can be seen under the microscope

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13
Q

____________ is/are used by the pathologist to diagnose the disease

A

morphological changes

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14
Q

morphological changes lead to what?

A

FUNCTIONAL alteration and the clinical signs/symptoms of the disease

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15
Q

name the 5 steps of histopathological techniques.

it is a technique to do what?

A
  1. fixation
  2. dehydration
  3. clearing
  4. infiltration
  5. embedding

it is a technique to diagnose diseases

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16
Q

what is cytopathology?

A

the study of cells from various body sites to determine the cause or nature of the disease

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17
Q

name 3 applications of cytopathology

A
  1. screening for early detection of asymptomatic cancer
  2. diagnosis of symptomatic cancer
  3. surveillance of patients being treated for cancer
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18
Q

give an example of using CYTOPATHOLOGY to screen for the early detection of asymptomatic cancer

A

the examination of scrapings from the cervix for early detection/prevention of cervical cancer

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19
Q

true or false

for some types of cancers, cytology is the most feasible method of surveillance to detect recurrence

A

TRUE

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20
Q

Give an example of how cytology can be used to survey patients being treated for cancer

A

periodic urine cytology to monitor the recurrence of cancer of the urinary tract

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21
Q

explain hematological examination

A

a diagnostic technique

used to detect abnormalities in BLOOD CELLS and their precursors in the bone marrow

used to diagnose different kinds of anemia and leukemia

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22
Q

explain immunohistochemistry

A

a diagnostic technique

detects a specific antigen in the tissue to identify the type of disease

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23
Q

explain microbiological examination

A

a diagnostic technique

body fluids, tissues, etc are examined by MICROSCOPAL, CULTURAL, AND SEROLOGICAL techniques to identify microorganisms responsible for many diseases

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24
Q

“metabolic disturbances of disease are investigated by assay of various normal and abnormal compounds in the blood, urine, etc”

A

biochemical examination

diagnostic technique

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25
Q

true or false

autopsy is not a diagnostic technique

A

FALSE – it is.

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26
Q

“a method in which inherited chromosomal abnormalities in the germ cells or acquired chromosomal abnormalities in somatic cells are investigated using the techniques of molecular biology”

A

clinical genetics (cytogenics)

a diagnostic technique

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27
Q

diseases can be caused by ___ or ___, or a combination of the 2

A

environmental or genetic factors

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28
Q

what is the term for a disease that was inherited AND caused by the environment

A

epigenetics

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29
Q

the environmental factors that can cause disease are classified into what 6 categories

A

-physical
-chemical
-nutritional deficiencies/excesses
-infections and infestations
-immunological factors
-psychogenic factors

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30
Q

name 3 ways in which cells can react to an adverse influence

A

-adaptation
-reversible cell injury
-irreversible cell injury

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31
Q

what is “new homeostasis”

A

adaptation

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32
Q

if reversible cell injury is accompanied by persistent stress, what happens?

A

ADAPTATION - hypertrophy, atrophy, metaplasia, dysplasia, etc

once stress is released, the cell will go back to normal

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33
Q

true or false

biochemical alterations lead to cell death

A

true

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34
Q

cell injury is dependent on the ___ and __ of the stress

A

severity and duration

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35
Q

what is the most common cause of cell injury

A

hypoxia due to ischemia (loss of blood supply), anemia, or carbon monoxide

36
Q

hypoxia results in abnormal ____

A

metabolism

37
Q

explain how hypoxia results in abnormal metabolism

A

-reduced phosphorylation, hence reduced ATP
-increased ANAEROBIC glycolysis
-increased lactic acidosis (fermentation)
-decreased pH (cellular acidosis)

38
Q

as mentioned, hypoxia results in abnormal metabolism like reduced phosphorylation and thus reduced ATP, increased anaerobic glycolysis, increases lactic acidosis (fermentation), and decreased pH (cellular acidosis)

what is the ultimate result of this?

A

morphological changes such as clumping of chromatin, loss of ribosomes, and influx of water into the cell (hydropic swelling)

39
Q

how many ATP molecules are produced in aerobic respiration?

A

~38

40
Q

how does hypoxia result in less ATP production?

A

O2 is needed to grab electrons. without O2, only 2 ATP can be produced (from glycolysis)

41
Q

what causes the intracellular influx of water in hypoxia?

A

ATP controls the sodium potassium pump. the pump is energy dependent and slows down with lack of ATP. this causes an influx of sodium and water follows it. potassium rushes out of the cell

42
Q

the NORMAL activity of the sodium potassium pump keeps the ___ concentration of potassium significantly high

A

INTRACELLULAR

43
Q

What is the result of an influx of calcium into the cell? what is the cause of this?

A

increased calcium in the cell is due to lack of ATP (hypoxia) to transport calcium OUT.

the result of Ca2+ influx is the activation of a lot of nasty enzymes like proteases, phospholipases, nucleases, ATP ase

the plasma membrane blebs, cytoskeleton aggregates, mitochondrial swelling and calcification, disaggregated ribosomes, increased cellular volume, etc

44
Q

are ribosomes functional without energy?

A

NO
no ATP = no transport of protein to the ER

45
Q

decreased O2 leads to decreased _____ and thus ____

A

decreased O2 leads to decreased OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION and thus decreased ATP

46
Q

as ATP decreases, anaerobic glycolysis _____

A

increases

47
Q

as ATP decreases, the activity of the sodium pump ______

A

decreases

48
Q

what happens to ribosomes as ATP production falls?

A

the ribosomes detach and there is decreases protein synthesis

49
Q

what are 4 results of increased anaerobic glycolysis?

A

decreased glycogen
increased lactic acid which leads to decrease in pH and clumping of chromatini

50
Q

when chromatin clumps, what is its visual appearance?

A

dark and dense

51
Q

what is the result of decreased activity of the sodium pump

A

influx of water and calcium which causes ER swelling and blebbing of the cell membrane

52
Q

endonucleases cause what kind of damage? what can they be activated by?

A

cause nuclear damage.
can be activated by the influx of calcium

53
Q

what enzymes cause membrane damage?

A

proteases and phospholipases

54
Q

the effect of injury depends on what 3 factors

A

type
duration
severity

(of the injury)

55
Q

is short ischemia reversible or irreversible?

A

reversible

56
Q

what 3 factors influence the severity of the cellular injury

A

type of injurious agent
time factor
the cell’s susceptibility to injury (cardiac cells are very sensitive to hypoxia while keratinocytes aren’t nearly as much)

57
Q

what are 5 potential outcomes of cell injury

A

recovery
adaptation
death
inflammation
tissue repair

58
Q

in the case of _____ injuries, restoring full structure and function may take place

A

reversible

59
Q

cell adaptation includes what 4 things

A

atrophy
hypertrophy
hyperplasia
metaplasia

60
Q

cell death occurs by?

A

necrosis or apoptosis in the case of IRREVERSIBLE cell injury

61
Q

when does inflammation occur?

A

after cell death and necrosis in ACUTE and CHRONIC forms

62
Q

tissue repair includes….

A

regeneration and fibrosis (after inflammation) to fill the gap

63
Q

true or false

cellular swelling and bleb formation are reversible changes

A

TRUE – only if oxygenation is restored

64
Q

is the clumping of chromatin reversible?

A

yes - only if oxygenation is restored

65
Q

____ ____ of abnormal substances are known causes of cell injury and are associated with pathological changes in the affected organ

A

intracellular accumulations

66
Q

name 4 abnormal substances that can accumulate intracellularly

A

protein
lipids (fatty)
glycogen
pigment

67
Q

when does intracellular protein accumulation occur

A

in cases of Mallori bodies in alcoholic liver disease

68
Q

what is the result of intracellular fatty changes?

A

small vacuoles of fat accumulate and become dispersed within the cytoplasm. severe fatty change can impair cellular function

69
Q

where does lipid (fat) accumulation occur? is it reversible?

A

in hepatocytes (liver)
depending on the cause and severity of the lipid accumulation, fatty change is generally reversible

70
Q

accumulation of fats within which cells occurs in cases of malnutrition, obesity, diabetes, alcohol abuse, and CCl4 poisoning?

A

liver, heart, muscles, kidneys

71
Q

glycogen accumulation occurs when

A

in cases of glycogen storage disease

72
Q

what are pigments?

A

colored substances that are either endogenous (melanin, lipofuscin, hemochromatosis) or EXOGENOUS pigments like carbon, asbestos, etc

73
Q

what is the most common exogenous pigment?
what happens when we inhale it?

A

carbon from coal dust, and air pollutants.

when inhaled it is phagocytised by alveolar macrophages and transported through lymphatic channels causing ANTHRACOSIS or coal workers pneumoconiosis

74
Q

what is the “wear and tear” pigment? is it endogenous or exogenous

A

lipofuscin
endogenous

75
Q

where does lipofuscin accumulate?

A

skin heart liver brain

76
Q

is lipofuscin injurious to the cell

A

no

77
Q

lipofuscin is an important marker of…

A

past free radical injury

78
Q

what is an endogenous, black-brown pigment

A

melanin

79
Q

what cells accumulate melanin?

A

basal keratinocytes and dermal macrophages

80
Q

what makes melanocyte stimulating hormone

A

the pituitary gland

81
Q

alteration in skin color can be the result of…..

A

pituitary gland function abnormalities (including cancer)

82
Q

transformed melanocytes can cause what?

A

melanoma

83
Q

what is hemosiderin

A

a hemoglobin derived golden yellow-brown granular pigment (endogenous)

84
Q

where does hemosiderin accumulate?

A

in tissues where there is a local or systemic excess of iron

85
Q

what condition results in an extensive accumulation of iron?

A

hereditary hemochromatosis

86
Q
A

Pathology Midterm (10 decks)

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