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Pathology Midterm > (part 1) Cell Injury - Lecture 1 > Flashcards

(part 1) Cell Injury - Lecture 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is pathology?
also break down the word

A

pathology is the study of disease by scientific methods

patho = disease
logy = study

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2
Q

pathology studies these 4 aspects of disease:

A

-etiology
-pathogenesis
-morphological changes
-functional derangements and clinical significance

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3
Q

what does etiology mean?
how is etiology classified?

A

etiology means the cause of the disease

primary etiology
idiopathic

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4
Q

differentiate between the types of etiology

A

primary etiology means the cause of the disease is known

if the cause is UNKNOWN, it is idiopathic

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5
Q

which type of etiology allows us to make diagnoses, understand disease, and develop treatment for the disease?

A

PRIMARY etiology

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6
Q

etiology is followed by ______

A

pathogenesis

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7
Q

what are the major classes of etiologic factors?

A

genetic and acquired

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8
Q

what does pathogenesis mean?

A

the mechanism through which the cause operates to produce the pathological and clinical manifestations

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9
Q

___ leads to morphological changes

A

pathogenesis

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10
Q

the pathogenetic mechanisms could take place in the ___ or ___ period

A

latent or incubation

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11
Q

define morphological changes

A

structural alterations in cells or tissues that occur following the PATHOGENESIS MECHANISMS

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12
Q

what are the classes of morphological changes?

A

gross and microscopic morphological changes

gross changes can be seen with the naked eye and microscopic can be seen under the microscope

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13
Q

____________ is/are used by the pathologist to diagnose the disease

A

morphological changes

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14
Q

morphological changes lead to what?

A

FUNCTIONAL alteration and the clinical signs/symptoms of the disease

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15
Q

name the 5 steps of histopathological techniques.

it is a technique to do what?

A
  1. fixation
  2. dehydration
  3. clearing
  4. infiltration
  5. embedding

it is a technique to diagnose diseases

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16
Q

what is cytopathology?

A

the study of cells from various body sites to determine the cause or nature of the disease

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17
Q

name 3 applications of cytopathology

A
  1. screening for early detection of asymptomatic cancer
  2. diagnosis of symptomatic cancer
  3. surveillance of patients being treated for cancer
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18
Q

give an example of using CYTOPATHOLOGY to screen for the early detection of asymptomatic cancer

A

the examination of scrapings from the cervix for early detection/prevention of cervical cancer

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19
Q

true or false

for some types of cancers, cytology is the most feasible method of surveillance to detect recurrence

A

TRUE

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20
Q

Give an example of how cytology can be used to survey patients being treated for cancer

A

periodic urine cytology to monitor the recurrence of cancer of the urinary tract

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21
Q

explain hematological examination

A

a diagnostic technique

used to detect abnormalities in BLOOD CELLS and their precursors in the bone marrow

used to diagnose different kinds of anemia and leukemia

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22
Q

explain immunohistochemistry

A

a diagnostic technique

detects a specific antigen in the tissue to identify the type of disease

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23
Q

explain microbiological examination

A

a diagnostic technique

body fluids, tissues, etc are examined by MICROSCOPAL, CULTURAL, AND SEROLOGICAL techniques to identify microorganisms responsible for many diseases

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24
Q

“metabolic disturbances of disease are investigated by assay of various normal and abnormal compounds in the blood, urine, etc”

A

biochemical examination

diagnostic technique

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25
true or false autopsy is not a diagnostic technique
FALSE -- it is.
26
"a method in which inherited chromosomal abnormalities in the germ cells or acquired chromosomal abnormalities in somatic cells are investigated using the techniques of molecular biology"
clinical genetics (cytogenics) a diagnostic technique
27
diseases can be caused by ___ or ___, or a combination of the 2
environmental or genetic factors
28
what is the term for a disease that was inherited AND caused by the environment
epigenetics
29
the environmental factors that can cause disease are classified into what 6 categories
-physical -chemical -nutritional deficiencies/excesses -infections and infestations -immunological factors -psychogenic factors
30
name 3 ways in which cells can react to an adverse influence
-adaptation -reversible cell injury -irreversible cell injury
31
what is "new homeostasis"
adaptation
32
if reversible cell injury is accompanied by persistent stress, what happens?
ADAPTATION - hypertrophy, atrophy, metaplasia, dysplasia, etc once stress is released, the cell will go back to normal
33
true or false biochemical alterations lead to cell death
true
34
cell injury is dependent on the ___ and __ of the stress
severity and duration
35
what is the most common cause of cell injury
hypoxia due to ischemia (loss of blood supply), anemia, or carbon monoxide
36
hypoxia results in abnormal ____
metabolism
37
explain how hypoxia results in abnormal metabolism
-reduced phosphorylation, hence reduced ATP -increased ANAEROBIC glycolysis -increased lactic acidosis (fermentation) -decreased pH (cellular acidosis)
38
as mentioned, hypoxia results in abnormal metabolism like reduced phosphorylation and thus reduced ATP, increased anaerobic glycolysis, increases lactic acidosis (fermentation), and decreased pH (cellular acidosis) what is the ultimate result of this?
morphological changes such as clumping of chromatin, loss of ribosomes, and influx of water into the cell (hydropic swelling)
39
how many ATP molecules are produced in aerobic respiration?
~38
40
how does hypoxia result in less ATP production?
O2 is needed to grab electrons. without O2, only 2 ATP can be produced (from glycolysis)
41
what causes the intracellular influx of water in hypoxia?
ATP controls the sodium potassium pump. the pump is energy dependent and slows down with lack of ATP. this causes an influx of sodium and water follows it. potassium rushes out of the cell
42
the NORMAL activity of the sodium potassium pump keeps the ___ concentration of potassium significantly high
INTRACELLULAR
43
What is the result of an influx of calcium into the cell? what is the cause of this?
increased calcium in the cell is due to lack of ATP (hypoxia) to transport calcium OUT. the result of Ca2+ influx is the activation of a lot of nasty enzymes like proteases, phospholipases, nucleases, ATP ase the plasma membrane blebs, cytoskeleton aggregates, mitochondrial swelling and calcification, disaggregated ribosomes, increased cellular volume, etc
44
are ribosomes functional without energy?
NO no ATP = no transport of protein to the ER
45
decreased O2 leads to decreased _____ and thus ____
decreased O2 leads to decreased OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION and thus decreased ATP
46
as ATP decreases, anaerobic glycolysis _____
increases
47
as ATP decreases, the activity of the sodium pump ______
decreases
48
what happens to ribosomes as ATP production falls?
the ribosomes detach and there is decreases protein synthesis
49
what are 4 results of increased anaerobic glycolysis?
decreased glycogen increased lactic acid which leads to decrease in pH and clumping of chromatini
50
when chromatin clumps, what is its visual appearance?
dark and dense
51
what is the result of decreased activity of the sodium pump
influx of water and calcium which causes ER swelling and blebbing of the cell membrane
52
endonucleases cause what kind of damage? what can they be activated by?
cause nuclear damage. can be activated by the influx of calcium
53
what enzymes cause membrane damage?
proteases and phospholipases
54
the effect of injury depends on what 3 factors
type duration severity (of the injury)
55
is short ischemia reversible or irreversible?
reversible
56
what 3 factors influence the severity of the cellular injury
type of injurious agent time factor the cell's susceptibility to injury (cardiac cells are very sensitive to hypoxia while keratinocytes aren't nearly as much)
57
what are 5 potential outcomes of cell injury
recovery adaptation death inflammation tissue repair
58
in the case of _____ injuries, restoring full structure and function may take place
reversible
59
cell adaptation includes what 4 things
atrophy hypertrophy hyperplasia metaplasia
60
cell death occurs by?
necrosis or apoptosis in the case of IRREVERSIBLE cell injury
61
when does inflammation occur?
after cell death and necrosis in ACUTE and CHRONIC forms
62
tissue repair includes....
regeneration and fibrosis (after inflammation) to fill the gap
63
true or false cellular swelling and bleb formation are reversible changes
TRUE -- only if oxygenation is restored
64
is the clumping of chromatin reversible?
yes - only if oxygenation is restored
65
____ ____ of abnormal substances are known causes of cell injury and are associated with pathological changes in the affected organ
intracellular accumulations
66
name 4 abnormal substances that can accumulate intracellularly
protein lipids (fatty) glycogen pigment
67
when does intracellular protein accumulation occur
in cases of Mallori bodies in alcoholic liver disease
68
what is the result of intracellular fatty changes?
small vacuoles of fat accumulate and become dispersed within the cytoplasm. severe fatty change can impair cellular function
69
where does lipid (fat) accumulation occur? is it reversible?
in hepatocytes (liver) depending on the cause and severity of the lipid accumulation, fatty change is generally reversible
70
accumulation of fats within which cells occurs in cases of malnutrition, obesity, diabetes, alcohol abuse, and CCl4 poisoning?
liver, heart, muscles, kidneys
71
glycogen accumulation occurs when
in cases of glycogen storage disease
72
what are pigments?
colored substances that are either endogenous (melanin, lipofuscin, hemochromatosis) or EXOGENOUS pigments like carbon, asbestos, etc
73
what is the most common exogenous pigment? what happens when we inhale it?
carbon from coal dust, and air pollutants. when inhaled it is phagocytised by alveolar macrophages and transported through lymphatic channels causing ANTHRACOSIS or coal workers pneumoconiosis
74
what is the "wear and tear" pigment? is it endogenous or exogenous
lipofuscin endogenous
75
where does lipofuscin accumulate?
skin heart liver brain
76
is lipofuscin injurious to the cell
no
77
lipofuscin is an important marker of...
past free radical injury
78
what is an endogenous, black-brown pigment
melanin
79
what cells accumulate melanin?
basal keratinocytes and dermal macrophages
80
what makes melanocyte stimulating hormone
the pituitary gland
81
alteration in skin color can be the result of.....
pituitary gland function abnormalities (including cancer)
82
transformed melanocytes can cause what?
melanoma
83
what is hemosiderin
a hemoglobin derived golden yellow-brown granular pigment (endogenous)
84
where does hemosiderin accumulate?
in tissues where there is a local or systemic excess of iron
85
what condition results in an extensive accumulation of iron?
hereditary hemochromatosis
86

Pathology Midterm (10 decks)

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