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EVOLUTION > Parental Investment (4a) > Flashcards

Parental Investment (4a) Flashcards

1
Q

Parental investment/Parental care attributes? (2)

A

• Gamete related.
• Benefit of current offspring.

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2
Q

What do we mean by benefit of current offspring?

A

We mean that the benefit of raising this offspring MUST OUTWEIGH producing more offspring. AKA quality over quantity.

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3
Q

Benefits of adaptive value of parental care?(2)

A

• Improved survival of offspring.
• Improved quality of offspring.

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4
Q

Costs of adaptive value of parental care? (2)

A

• Reduced future survival of parent.
• Reduced mating opportunities for parent.

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5
Q

In parental care, what do offspring always do?

A

Offspring always try & get more from parents.

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6
Q

It’s optimal for the parent to do what?

A

To invest a certain amount of energy into the 1st offspring (wean), then invest in producing a 2nd offspring when cost of raising no.1 > benefits of raising no.2.

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7
Q

It’s optimal for offspring to do what? (2)

A

• Demand investment from mother until mother’s fitness starts to decline.
• Decrease inclusive fitness
- because ½ of offspring genes are shared with mother.

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8
Q

Inclusive fitness?

A

= a measure of an individual’s total genetic contribution to subsequent generations.

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9
Q

Inclusive fitness/fitness types? (2)

A

• Direct fitness.
• Indirect fitness.

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10
Q

Direct fitness?

A

= personal reproduction/an individual’s fitness.

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11
Q

Indirect fitness?

A

= additional reproduction by relatives (made possible by an individual’s actions).

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12
Q

Kin selection?

A

= care for others/other siblings to facilitate offspring growth.

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13
Q

Who does parental care?

A

Generally provided by females.

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14
Q

Why is parental care generally provided by females?

A

Anisogamy.

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15
Q

When might paternal behavior evolve?

A

When costs of parenting for males is less than that for females.

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16
Q

Why does Infanticide happen?

A

It is because the males don’t think that they are the father of the offspring produced.

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17
Q

If males are more confident that an offspring is theirs, what happens?

A

They take care of the offspring.

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18
Q

Egs of animal populations that practice Infanticide? (2)

A

• Wild dogs.
• Lions.

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19
Q

How do colony-based species recognize their offspring?

A

By specific calls known to offspring.

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20
Q

Eg of offspring recognition? Explain

A

Bats.

• where they have a specific call frequency that the offspring know.

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21
Q

Kin selection basically?

A

= where animal risks itself to save relatives.

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22
Q

Eg of kin selection?

A

Meerkats.

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23
Q

Confidence of paternity hypothesis?

A

= hypothesis that states that one should expect the parent with the highest certainty to be parental care-giver.

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24
Q

2 types of fertilization under Confidence of paternity hypothesis?

A
  • Internal fertilization.

* External fertilization.

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25
Q

Describe the 2 types of fertilization.

A

● Internal fertilization.
= maternal care.

● External fertilization.
= paternal care.

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26
Q

Eg of external fertilization?

A

Frog fertilization.

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27
Q

In Parental-Offspring Conflict: # Offspring, Why don’t parents have lots of offspring?

A

It depends on the trade-offs of:
• offspring # & quality (more offspring, low quality).
• offspring # & parental reproductive success (reproductive success is independent of offspring #, as long as the offspring can produce their own offspring, i.e., will grandchildren be produced?).

28
Q

What does sibling rivalry solely depend on?

A

Food supply.

29
Q

2 influences of sibling rivalry?

A

• Asynchronous laying.
• Incubation of young.

30
Q

How do the 2 influences affect sibling rivalry?

A

● Asynchronous laying.
= less sibling rivalry.

● Incubation of young.
= more sibling rivalry.

31
Q

Why don’t parents step in to save the attacked young?

A

It depends. If:
● Chicks all same size.
= more fighting, poor survival.

● Chicks different sizes.
= less fighting, better survival.

32
Q

Care allocation by sex, who gets better parental care?/Who is invested in more?

A

Male offspring.

33
Q

Why are male offspring given better care & quality of food?

A

Sexy sons hypothesis.

34
Q

Eg of care allocation by sex? Explain.

A

Songlarks.

- where male offsprings grow faster because mothers give better quality food to sons.

35
Q

Parental investment/Parental care?

A

= any parental trait that increases the fitness of the offspring & is likely to have originated and been currently maintained for this function.

36
Q

What is preferred in parental care?

A

That the benefits outweigh the costs of caring for offspring.

37
Q

Explain the Parental investment graph observed in Rhesus monkeys?

A

It explains/shows that offspring are always trying to get more from their parents.

38
Q

How are Meerkats an example of Kin selection?

A

Meerkat that warns other meerkats of incoming predator (meerkat on the lookout) risks its life to save its relatives.

39
Q

Egs of offspring recognition? (4)

A

• Fry.
• Cliff swallows.
• Bats.
• Ring-billed gulls.

40
Q

Results of parents not treating offspring equally? (3)

A

• Sibling rivalry.
• Siblicide.
• Parental favouritism.

41
Q

Things that the eldest chicks are allowed to do by the parents? (2)

A

• Attack & kill younger siblings.
• Drive younger ones from the nest.

42
Q

Egs of organisms that are Obligate brood reducers? (2)

A

• African black eagles.
• Giant pandas.

43
Q

Egs of organisms that are facultative brood reducers? (2)

A

• Cattle egret.
• Blue-footed boobies.

44
Q

Obligate brood reducers attributes? (2)

A

• Insurance against failure (polyovulating).
• Eldest is allowed to attack & kill younger siblings.

45
Q

Why do giant pandas abandon the 2nd cub?

A

It’s because it’s a burden to provide milk of for more than one cub is too much.

46
Q

Why is there an unequal distribution of food to offspring?

A

It’s because it’s more beneficial to focus on the offspring that is already strong than the offspring that is weak.

47
Q

Trade offs of unequal parental care? (2)

A

• Offspring number vs Quantity.
• Offspring number vs Parental future reproductive success.

48
Q

Why do parents allow eldest to kill other siblings?

A

Because of resource limitations.

49
Q

Facultative brood reducers attributes? (4)

A

• Environmental capacity (policy of parental optimisms).
• Eldest is allowed to drive younger ones from the nest.
• Parent feeds stronger ones & starve weaker offspring.
• Solely depends on food supply.

50
Q

Why does the parent feed stronger offspring & starve the weaker offspring?

A

It’s because of limited food supply.

51
Q

Blue-footed boobies features? (2)

A

• Conditional siblicide.
• Policy of parental optimisms.

52
Q

What do we mean when we say conditional siblicide?

A

We mean that siblings are killed if their weight is less than 80% normal.

53
Q

How do parents evaluate the reproductive value of offspring?

A

By checking for a red colour as this indicates the presence of carotenoid pigments & therefore a stronger immune system and increased survival.

54
Q

Explain the differential allocation of sex? (2)

A

● Increased density population, less resources, females get more preferential treatment as resources aren’t enough to ensure males get big enough.

● Decreased density population, more resources, males get more preferential treatment as resources are enough to ensure males get big enough.

55
Q

Egs of male only parental care? (3)

A

• Seahorses.
• Mallee fowls.
• Sticklebacks.

56
Q

Why male only parental care? (2)

A

• Costs are less in males than in females.
• Confidence of paternity hypothesis.

57
Q

Eg of where there is both parents caring for offspring?

A

St. Peter’s fish.

58
Q

St. Peter’s fish spawning options/instances? (3)

A

• Biparental care.
• Male only care.
• Female only care.

59
Q

Thing to note about St. Peter’s fish?

A

Mouthbrood.

60
Q

Results of mouthbrooding? (2)

A

• Weight loss due to reduced feeding.
• Cost of brood care is increased in females than males.

61
Q

Confidence of paternity hypothesis?

A

= states that the sex providing parental care is more likely to take care of the offspring.

62
Q

How do parents recognize their young? (2)

A

• Chemicals.
• Sound frequency of sound calls.

63
Q

Thing to note in sound calls in colonies?

A

More colonies, Higher chance of recognizing colonies.

64
Q

What is the consequence of SS?

A

Parental care.

65
Q

Parental care forms among others from start to end? (4)

A

• Gamete provision.
• Egg attendance.
• Egg brooding.
• Offspring maturation.

66
Q

Result of more parental investment?

A

Produces more reproductive & fit offspring that can survive.

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