Parasitology Exam #2 Flashcards
1
Q
what type of cell are Natural Killer Cells (NK)?
A
lymphocytes (second line of defense, nonspecific immunity, innate immunity)
Target own infected cell it can be cancer cells or cells that has inside of them extracellular parasites (parasites living within the actual cells)
2
Q
Natural killer (NK) cells:
A
- Do not kill pathogen directly, but induce apoptosis of infected cells(cancer and viral)
- Release perforins, insert in membrane and make pores, granzymes enter infected cell and activate caspase enzymes that induce apoptosis
- Big player in immune surveillance and the bodies defense against cancer
- Do not have T-cell receptors, but do express Fc receptor molecules for lgE
3
Q
Natural Killer only target cells that does not have what class receptor?
A
MHC class 1 Even thought the NK cell is activated it does not mean that it will release the perforins. If its able to make contact with MHC class 1, with the inhibitory receptor, then it will not do degranulation, no release of perforins. On the other hand if the target cell does not have MHC class 1 then the NK cell will be activated and it will release the perforins
4
Q
if a target cell have a MHC class 1, what happen to the NK cell
A
The inhibitory receptor of NK react with MHC class 1 and it will inhibit the release of the granule (Cytotoxicity)
5
Q
Mast Cells:
A
- Primarily located under mucosal surfaces
- Release chemical mediator such as histamine to promote inflammation
- Triggered during allergic responses express Fc receptor molecules for lgE
- Important component of the inflammatory response
6
Q
The IgE primed mast cells release granules and powerful chemical mediators into the environment. What are the powerful chemical mediators?
A
Histamine and Cytokines
7
Q
what does vasodilation does to the skin
A
Redness
8
Q
what does endothelial gaping and fluid leakage does to the skin during a allergy
A
Swelling
9
Q
What does anti-Histamine treat ?
A
Allergic reaction
10
Q
How long can an Acute inflammation occurs
A
over seconds, minutes, hours, and days
11
Q
Chemical signals:
A
are released by infected or injured during initial response to tissue damage (acute Phase).
Ex. (histamine, prostaglandins, & bradykinins)
12
Q
Acute inflammation:
A
- dilation of local blood vessels increases blood flow at site (red & warm)
- increased permeability of capillaries causing edema (tissue swelling)
- tissue swelling puts pressure on nerve endings (pain & potential loss of function)
- macrophages and neutrophils release cytokines interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) which acts on hypothalamus to raise body temp. (fever)
A. fever is one of the most common symptoms of infection
B. fever stimulates phagocytosis and causes liver and spleen to store iron and zinc needed by bacteria
C. fever may destabilize certain viruses and bacteria - cell death (necrosis) always occurs to some degree during inflammation
13
Q
What element helps bacteria to grow?
A
Zinc and Iron
14
Q
Delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH):
A
Type of acute inflamation, occurs.
Type of cell mediated immunity in which the ultimate effectors are activated macrophages
- a period of 24 hours or more elapses between the time of antigen introduction and the response to it in an immunized subject
- Delay occurs because TH1 cells with receptors for that particular antigen require time to arrive at antigen site, recognize the epitopes on APCs, and become activated and secrete IL-2, TNF, and IFN-y
15
Q
how long could DTH takes to activates?
A
hours to days to activate because its cell mediated
16
Q
What analog did Dr. Sharp gave for the DTH?
A
Weed wacker reaction when cutting in shorts, poison ivy
17
Q
Examples of DTH
A
- Poison ivy plant with urushiol. Urushiol is a hapten: does not illicit an immune response unless it is coupled to another molecule
- Tuberculin skin test (montoux) reaction
18
Q
how to know if you previously exposed to a allergic reaction, what will happens to you?
A
Swell/indurate
19
Q
Immediate Hypersensitivity (definition)
A
a type of antibody mediated immunity which involves degranulation of basophils and mast cells in the area
Allergy and asthma related
20
Q
Immediate Hypersensitivity:
A
- Basophils and mast cells have receptors that bind the Fc portions of antibody (lgE)
- When exposed to the same allergen a 2nd time, degranulation occurs
- Results in dilation of local blood vessel and increased permeability; edema
- Immediate hypersensitivity is important in some parasitic infections
- Immediate hypersensitivity in humans is the basis of allergies and asthma
21
Q
What example did Dr. Sharp gave for immediate hypersensitivity?
A
- if you are asthmatic and you go to a dirty house
- if someone is allergic to cat, and goes to a cat home and have their nose running and/or sneezing
22
Q
Anaphylaxis:
A
(systemic immediate hypersensitivity): hypersensitivity produced by exposure to further doses of the same protein, usually when exposure is within less than 2 weeks
Ex. Bee stings
23
Q
What is happening during Anaphylaxis?
A
- Basophils and mast cells release pharmacologically active substances
- Widespread rapid inflammatory response that may be fatal if not treated rapidly
- Tremendous drop in blood pressure
- Swelling of epiglottis can block trachea, and bronchial constriction
24
Q
Chronic inflammation
A
acute inflammation that fails to heal; occurs over longer times and is disease related
25
Fibrosis:
arises from abnormal and continuous wound repair processes that fails to terminate resulting in elevated levels of collagen and scarring
26
Granulomas:
nodules of inflammatory tissues that may accumulate around persistent antigen
27
Abscess:
when necrotic debris confined to a localized area forms pus that may cause an increase in hydrostatic pressure
Ex: Schistosoma
28
Ulcers:
an area of inflammation that opens out of the skin or mucous surface
29
Schistosoma infection can result______
in liver fibrosis
30
what can Dracunculus do on human?
infection and abscess
31
Leishmaniasis effect on human?
Skin Ulcer
32
Complement
1. consists of approx. 30 different proteins, along with factors, B, D, and P.
2. circulate freely in blood plasma, generally in inactive form (zymogen)
3. complement can be activated by classical pathway (antigen-antibody complex) or alternative pathway (spontaneously) or lectin pathway (cell wall polysaccharides of certain bacteria and fungi with factors, B, D, and P.)
4. Complement proteins (C3b) coat pathogen surface (Opsonization), Thus promoting phagocytosis and destruction of pathogen by macrophages and neutrophils, which have receptors for C3b
5. C5a is an important chemotactic protein, helping inflammatory cells
6. complement C5b initiates pathway for membrane attack complex (MAC) that form pores in pathogens that have lipid membrane to induce lysis
33
What analog did Dr. Sharp used for C3b ?
If you play paintball and got shot with a fluorescent color, you be taking out every next time.
34
Alternative pathway is also considered as
domino effect
35
What are three ways complements can be activated?
- classical pathway (antigen-antibody complex)
- alternative pathway (spontaneously)
- lectin pathway (cell wall polysaccharides of certain bacteria and fungi)
36
What are the three interferons ? and also are Cytokines*
IFN- α
IFN- β
IFN- γ
37
Interferons:
1. A class of proteins synthesized upon parasitic infection of a cell
2. Act as messengers to protect normal cells in vicinity from becoming infected
3. IFN-α and IFN-β induce the degradation of RNA and block protein production
4. IFN-y is produced by TH cells and natural killer cells to stimulate cells in the cellular response
38
Cytokines:
1. cytokines are protein hormones utilized by immune cells to communicate
2. can effect same cells that produce them, cells nearby, or cells distant from the body
Ex. Interferon, interleukin, growth factors, etc.
39
What are the two functions of interleukin?
1. Activator
| 2. Grow cell
40
Cell signaling:
1. Ligand binds to a specific cell receptor protein, initiating intracellular signal cascades
2. Ligands may be located on cell surface or neighboring cells, dissolved in blood (cytokines) or on the surface of or secreted by pathogens
3. Cascade may activate transcription factors or protein that control gene induction, phagocytosis, apoptosis or secretion
Ex: JAK-STAT pathway
41
What is JAK ?
Janus Kinase
42
What is STAT?
Signal Transducer and Activator or Transcription
43
JAK-STAT pathway, what are the 3 main components ?
1. receptor
2. Janus Kinase
3. Signal Transducer and Activator or Transcription
44
What are Kinases?
are proteins that add phosphate groups to other proteins
45
What are Phosphate groups?
Act as "on" and "off" switches on proteins
46
Signal Transducer and Activator or Transcription (STAT):
1. Transmembrane receptor, activated by cytokine
2. activates the JAK protein, which adds phosphate groups (P) to the receptor
3. STAT is recruited and itself becomes phosphorylated (dimerized), forms dimer, and moves into the cell nucleus, where it binds to DNA promoter region
47
specific immunity-adaptive immunity is which line of defense?
the third line
48
What are the four important aspects of specific immunity response? (third line of defense)
1. Nonself recognition: ability to distinguish self-antigen from nonself
2. Antigen-specific: recognizes and is directed against specific antigens
3. Systemic response: immunity is not restricted to initial infection site
4. “memory”: recognizes and mount stronger attack on previously encountered pathogens
*soldier that attck the castle with amory, and archers hit the soldier in the eye hole
49
what is Pattern Recognition receptor ?
```
receptors with broad specificity that binds to molecules on the surface of pathogens; stimulated by PAMPs
-Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs): small molecular motifs conserved within a class of pathogens
```
50
what are three Receptor of (PAMPs)?
A. Scavenger receptors
B. Complement receptors
C. Toll-like Receptors (TLRs)
51
Scavenger receptors:
bind lipoproteins and lipoproteins and lipopolysaccharides from bacterial cells including Gram-positive bacteria (lipoteichoic acid) and Gram-negative bacteria (lipopolysaccharide)
*bacteria
52
Complement receptors:
integral membrane proteins that recognize fragments of complement and mediate various defense function, including phagocytes
53
Toll-like receptors (TLRs):
single, membrane-spanning, receptors that recognize structurally conserved molecule of carbohydrate, nucleotides, and proteins derived from viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and helminthes parasites
*antimicrobial proteins
54
Major Histocompatibility complex (MHC):
| Basis of self and nonself recognition
Cell surface glycoproteins, highly polymorphic
55
What analog did Dr. Sharp used about what are MHC 1?
Flag hole, they are used as an identification, information for other cell.
purple flag = marine life in Ocean
56
What are the two type of MHC ?
MHC Class 1 protein and MHC class 2 protein
57
MHC class 1 protein:
- Present on every nucleated cell of the body (few exception)
- Cytotoxic T cells (CD8) respond to ENDOGENOUS ANTIGEN bound to MHC class 1 protein
"if you have a nucleus, you have MHC class 1"
58
what happened if T-cell don't see a living cell but a cell present?
It release perforin and enzyme to kill cell (in MHC class 1)
59
MHC class 2 proteins:
- found only on antigen presenting cells (macrophages, B cells, and dendritic cells)
- TH cells (CD4) responds to EXOGENOUS ANTIGEN bound to MHC class 2 protein
* Th cells are Helper cell
* MHC class 2 protein also have MHC class 1 protein
60
Macrophages
Agranulocytes (mononuclear leukocytes)
1. Monocytes mature into active macrophages at site of infection
2. Intracellular killing and digest pathogens via phagocytosis
3. Phagosome fuses with lysosome, (oxygen-containing and nitrogen containing free radicals)
4. roam continuously in the extracellular fluid bathing tissue
5. antigen-presenting cell (APC) for helper T cells (TH)
6. respiratory burst for additional cell-killing ability (liberates deluge of free radicals)
7. express Fc receptor molecules for igG to trap antigen-antibody complexes
Ex. –Kupffer cells of liver
- Dendritic cells in blood
- Microglial cells in CNS,
61
Neutrophils
Granulocytes (polymorphonuclear leukocytes)
1. Most abundant circulating leukocytes (50-70% of peripheral blood leukocytes)
2. First cell on site of tissue damage or infection
3. Intracellular killing via phagocytosis, greater range of reactive oxygen radicals
4. Large numbers in blood until attracted to tissues during inflammation
5. Roam in the extracellular fluid bathing tissues
6. Express Fc receptor molecules for lgE
62
Eosinophils
Granulocytes (polymorphonuclear leukocytes)
1. 2%-5% of the total leukocytes in blood
2. important in the elimination of parasites
3. degranulation, next to parasite, releases extremely potent mediators (enzymes & toxins)
4. high blood count is often associated with parasitic infection & allergic diseases
5. express Fc receptor molecules for lgE
63
Basophilis
Granulocytes (polymorphonuclear leukocytes)
1. circulating cells, least numerous at about 0.5%
2. not important as phagocytes
3. release mediators such as histamine to promote inflammation
4. express Fc receptor molecules for lgE
64
Lymphocytes
Natural Killer (NK) Cells
1. Do not kill pathogen directly, but induce apoptosis of infected cells(cancer and viral)
2. Release perforins, insert in membrane and make pores, granzymes enter infected cell and activate caspase enzymes that induce apoptosis
3. Big player in immune surveillance and the bodies defense against cancer
4. Do not have T-cell receptors, but do express Fc receptor molecules for lgE
65
Bradykinins
Are known to cause endothelial gaping. Very potent vasodilator
66
Cell-mediated immunity :
entirely associated with cell surfaces, T-cell receptors, that are unable to “see” free antigens
67
T-cells (definition)
can regulate the immune responses of other cells (CD4) or indirectly kills cells (CD8) that carry specific antigens
68
Specific immunity (Adaptive immunity) , T-cell:
1. Lymphocytes produced in red bone marrow, migrate to thymus (primary lymphoid organ) where they mature (VDJ recombination of T cell receptor) and undergo selection
2. T cells must recognize self MHC proteins needed for activation but not the self anitgens (self tolerance) that the MHC presents (T-cell eliminated in thymus if criteria not met)
3. “Naïve” T cells recirculate only between the blood and secondary lymphoid organ
(Ex. Spleen, tonsils, or lymph nodes) ++ Do not enter the tissues; activated in secondary lymphoid organs
4. T-cells receptors are transmembrane proteins with constant and variable region, like antibodies; composed of 2 chains (alpha and beta)
5. T-cell receptors recognize only a processed peptide fragment that the APC’s MHC presents to the T cell receptor, unlike B-cell receptors
6. Other transmembrane proteins closely linked to T-cell receptors serve as coreceptors, such as CD4 and CD8
7. T cell activation occurs in secondary lymphoid tissue when antigen is displayed with self MHC on mature dendritic cells (DCs)
69
What was the analog of Dr. Sharp on CD4 and CD8 figurative
What do CD4 do, they are generals, they give order and CD8 are hand-to-hand combat soldier
70
What was the analog of Dr. Sharp of T-cell maturing in Thymus
They goes to University of thymus where only 2 % pass,
If the graduate fail to attack the wrong cells but start attacking the good one, then it is an autoimmune
71
what is CD stands for?
cluster and differ
72
Cytotoxic T cell (definition)
kills cells that are infected with viruses (or other pathogens)
*macrophage
73
Cytotoxic T cells (characteristics)
1. Have CD8 coreceptor protein
2. Antigen-presenting cell (APC) often include dendritic cells (professional APC)
3. Activated by endogenous antigens bound to MHC class I proteins of dendritic cells
4. Activation results in the release of IL-2, TNF, and IFN-y; and they differentiate into memory cells and activated cells (clonal expansion)
5. “altered-self” cells expressing the same combination of foreign peptide on MHC class I are targeted; may include tumor cells, virally infected cells, or intracellular parasites
6. Release perforins, insert in membrane and make pores, granzymes enter infected cell and activate caspase enzymes that induce apoptosis
74
Helper T cells (definition):
involved in activating and directing other immune cells; their cytokines largely determine whether an immune response is humoral or cell mediated; no killing ability
75
Helper T cells (characteristic):
1. have CD4 coreceptor protein
2. 1st signal is initiated by exogenous antigens bound to MHC class II proteins of macrophages, dendritic cells (phagocytosis or endocytosis), and B cells (receptor-mediated endocytosis)
3. 2nd signal is a verification step, naïve TH cells express the protein CD28 that must bind to costimulatory B7 protein on professional APCs; a protective measure to ensure TH cells are responding to a foreign antigen
4. When 2nd activation signal is complete the originally undetermined T-helper null cell (TH0) releases a potent T cell growth factor called interleukin 2 (IL-2), which activates the T cells proliferation pathways
5. TH0 cells differentiate into TH1 or TH2 cells depending cytokine environment Cellular Respone- IL-12 & IFN-y induces TH1 differentiation; IFN-y inhibits TH2 cells Humoral Response- IL-4 drives TH2 differentiation, and inhibits TH1 cell production
6. Both T helper cell groups are able to inhibit the activation of the other group using their own cytokines
- TH1 cells communicate attack against intracellular bacteria and protozoa
- TH2 cells communicate attack against extracellular parasites including helminths
76
TH1 cells mainly secrete:
- IL-2: growth factor for T and B cells; natural killer cells become lymphokine- activated killer (LAK) cells
- IFN-y: inhibition of TH2 cells, strong macrophage activating factor
- TNF: major mediator of inflammation; high concentration increase synthesis of prostaglandins, resulting in fever
- GM-CSF: Granulocyte-macrophage Colony Stimulating Factor
77
TH2 cells mainly secrete:
- IL-4: growth factor for B cells; suppress TH1 cell production
- IL-5: stimulates B cells for growth, differentiation, and production of antibodies; activates eosinophils
- IL-10: inhibits TH1 cells, cytotoxic T cells, NK cells, & macrophage cytokine synthesis
78
Humoral immunity (definition) :
Based on antibodies on cell surfaces and body fluids (blood, lymph, etc.)
79
B Cells (definition) :
-bind specific to free (soluble) antigen or particulate antigen with its membrane bound antibody (B cell receptor); also serves as APC to TH cells.
80
If B cells is highly reactive to self :
Clonal deletion- removal, usually by apoptosis
Receptor editing- opportunity to rearrange their conformation via RAG (Recombination Activating Gene)
Anergy- B cells enter a state of permanent unresponsiveness and fail to respond to their specific antigen
81
Clonal deletion definition:
removal, usually by apoptosis
82
Receptor editing definition:
opportunity to rearrange their conformation via RAG (Recombination Activating Gene)
83
Anergy definition:
B cells enter a state of permanent unresponsiveness and fail to respond to their specific antigen
84
B cells (characteristics):
1. B Cells produced in red bone marrow; immunoglobulin (lg) synthesis occurs
2. lg is encoded by different segments of DNA, a V (variable) segment, a D (diversity) segment, a J (joining) segment, and a constant region; variable are reshuffled by RAGs
3. Each lg consists of 2 identical short polypeptides called light chains and 2 identical longer polypeptide chains called heavy chains; held together by disulfide bonds to form a Y-shaped molecule
4. Each “arm” is called Fab (fragment antigen-binding) region and the “stem” is called Fc (fragment crystallizable) region
5. The heavy chain constant region is translated from 1 of 5 possible DNA sequences named u (mu), Y (gamma), a (alpha), e (epsilon), which give rise to a particular class of immunoglobulin
6. Immunoglobulins IgM (monomeric form) and IgD are present on mature “naïve” B cells
7. B cells recirculate only between blood and lymphoid organs, activated in secondary lymphoid organ (Ex. Lymph nodes, MALT, which includes tonsils and appendix)
8. B cells recognize their cognate antigen in its native form with its B-cell receptors (antibodies); each Ig can bind identical epitopes
9. Binding of antigen to Ig on surface of appropriate B cell is usually not sufficient to activate the B cell to multiply; so B cell (APC) internalizes antigen-antibody complex and incorporates portions of antigen (epitope) on MHC II
10. Specific TH2 cell recognizes antigen displayed by B cell; cytokines such as IL-4 are released from TH2 cell to activate B cells and plasma cells that secrete antibodies against the identical antigen
85
What are all Ig and their function:
IgM: pentamer, 1st antibody secreted during primary immune response monomer, present on surfaces of B cells
*chinese star
IgG: monomer, major antibody secreted during secondary response; 75% of plasma antibodies
IgD: monomer, present only on surfaces of B cells; serves as antigen receptor
IgA: dimer, most abundant form of antibody in body secretions; high density of IgA-secreting plasma cells in MALT
IgE: Fc binds to mast cells, basophils, etc.; often secreted in response to helminth worms; low conc. In plasma
*Neutrophils, Basophils...
86
B cells are divided into two type of cells, what are they ?
Plasma B cells and Memory B cells
87
Plasma B cells:
are large B cells that have been exposed to antigen
- produce and secrete large amounts of antibodies
- short lived cells and undergo apoptosis when the inciting agent
that induced immune response is eliminated
*Archers
88
Memory B cells:
specific to antigen during primary immune response
- can respond quickly following a second exposure to same antigen
- long lived cells
89
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV):
a retrovirus that attacks the body’s immune system; causes AIDS
A. HIV mounts direct attack on TH cells by binding to CD4 proteins on cell surface; monocytes are infected because they also express CD4
B. HIV kills TH cells, via apoptosis, faster than they can proliferate over time
C. HIV-encoded proteins also cause a decrease in the expression of MHC class I on infected cells, so these cells are less likely to be recognized and are killed by NK cells
D. When CD4+ T cell numbers decline below a critical level of 200 cells per uL. Cell-mediated immunity is lost (*cold/atletic foot/ deadly)
90
Phylum- Platyhelminthes (Flatworms):
phylum containing simplest bilaterally symmetrical animals
- most platyhelminthes are parasitic
- acoelomate body plan (no body cavity other than the gut); rarely has anus
- triploblastic (composed of three fundamental cell layers)
Ex. Mesoderm, ectoderm, and endoderm
- dorsoventrally flattened (greater surface area to respire by diffusion)
- tegument (surficial covering of a multicellular organism, an integument)
- parenchyma (loosely arranged mass of fibers and cells of several types
91
What is the differences between Acoelomate, Pseudocoelomate and coelomate?
Acoelomate : ecto,meso,endoderm on the outside and lumen in the middle
Pseudocoelomate: Ecto and mesoderm on the outside, pseudocoelom (space between mesoderm and endoderm-- not consider true lumen) endoderm and lumen
Coelomate: Ecto, meso and mesentery on the outside, coelom (space between 2 mesoderm), and endoderm and then lumen
92
Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)
small molecular motifs conserved within a class of pathogens
93
Phylum: Platyhelminthes
"Flatworms": Phylum containing simplest bilaterally symmetrical animals.
- Most Platyhelminthes are parasitic
- Acoelomate body plan (no body cavity other than the gut); rarely has anus
- Triploblastic (composed of three fundamental cell layers). Ex. Mesoderm, ectoderm, and endoderm
- Dorsoventrally flattened (greater surface area to respire by diffusion)
- Tegument (surficial covering of a multicellular organism, an integument)
- Parenchyma (loosely arranged mass of fibers and cells of several types
94
Phylum: Platyhelminthes
```
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Platyhelminthes
Class: Turbellaria, Monogenea, Cestoidea, Trematodea
Subclass: Digenea, Aspidobothrea
```
95
Tre atldea can infect what animal *comment of DR. sharp
Turtles
96
What type of issues did DR. sharp said about Monogea
Economic issue
97
Digenetic trematodes (flukes) (characteristic):
: a subclass within the class Trematoda
- digeneans parasitize all classes of vertebrates
- develops in at least two hosts
- first host is a mollusk (most often a gastropod) or very, rarely an annelid
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Platyhelminthes
```
Class: Turbellaria
Monogenea
Cestoidea
Trematoda
Subclass: Digenea
Aspidobothrea
```
98
Digenea body form:
Body Form
Most dorsoventrally flattened and oval in shape; others as thick as they are wide
- length ranges from 1.0 mm to 6.0 cm
Oral Sucker: muscular sucker that surrounds mouth
Acetabulum: ventral sucker of a fluke
Distome: fluke with two suckers, oral and ventral
Monostome: fluke that lacks a ventral sucker
Amphistome: fluke with the ventral sucker located at the posterior end
Tegument: surficial covering of a multicellular organism, an integument
Distal cytoplasm: anucleate layer of cytoplasm above a “sunken epidermis”
Cytons: cell bodies containing nuclei; lie beneath superficial muscle layer
Internuncial processes: channels that connect cytons to distal cytoplasm
Syncytial: describes the continuous distal cytoplasm with no intervening cell membranes
Spines: consist of crystalline actin; often present in certain areas of the tegument
Spines lie above the basement membranes of distal cytoplasm (*best feature to analyze the species)
Most flukes can absorb small molecules including amino acids and hexoses
99
Digenea muscular system:
- Circular muscles lies beneath the basal membrane of tegument
- Longitudinal and diagonal layers underlying the circular muscles envelop body
- Muscle fibers are smooth, often in syncytial clusters
- Myocyton: cell body of a muscle cell where nuclei occur; connect to fiber bundles
*look more like smooth muscle
100
Digenea Nervous System:
: cerebral ganglia with orthogonal nervous system
Orthogon: describes the ladderlike arrangement of nervous system in flatworms
- 3 main pairs of longitudinal trunks (dorsal, ventral, and lateral)
- cross-connected by a series of transverse commissures
- sensory endings extend from tegument; many types in cercaria (*find Def. host) and micacidium (*find snail)
- Tangoreceptors- receptors sensitive to touch
- Chemoreceptors- sensory receptors that responds to chemical stimuli (some strikingly similar to olfactory receptors of vertebrate nasal epithelium)(*If they don't migrate to the right organ, severe consequences could happens)
- Eyespots- allows organism to distinguish light direction (*they can detect shadows)
101
Where are mostly Nervous found in Digenea?
Ventral, Dorsal and Lateral
102
Digenea Excretion and Osmoregulation
Excretion: removal of waste and metabolic waste takes place across tegument, epithelial lining of gut, exocytosis of vesicles, and via excretory system
- Removal of waste products of metabolism
- Removal of unnecessary or harmful substances
- Regulation of internal osmotic pressure
- Regulation of internal ionic composition
- Protonephridia: Excretory system that is closed at the inner end by a flame cell and opens by a pore at the distal end
103
Digenea Flame bulb
: specialized hollow excretory or osmoregulatory structure
- one of several small cells containing a tuft of flagella
- situated at the end of minute tubule
- connected tubules ultimately open to the outside
- rod-like extensions of the flame cell form a filtering apparatus (weir)
-ductules of flame cells join collecting ducts that eventually feed into an excretory bladder that opens outside through a single pore
(*water, ion and small particles can get inside but big particles)
104
what is the analog Dr. Sharp gave for Flame bulb?
that its like a Jetski
105
What type of stain can you see Flame cell in cerceria?
Vital stain or Food Stain
106
Digenea Cell Formula ?
: represents the number and arrangements of flame cells
- used as a taxonomic character
Flame cell formula : 2[(LUQ)+(LLQ)]
*count the flame cells on a cell, only count one side, Left or Right.
107
Digenea Digestion:
digestion in most flukes is predominantly extracellular in the ceca (not Ceccum because they can be regurgitated) (Ceccum 'blind poutch' leads to anus)
waste is expelled through: - excretory system or tegument
- stored in worm tightly bound to protein
- periodically regurgitated
108
Digenea Acquisition of nutrients:
Feeding and digestion- varies with nutrient type and habitat within the host
Ex. Flukes of lungs, intestine, urinary bladder, rectum, and bile ducts draw a plug of tissue into their oral sucker and use pharynx (*muscular pharynx) as a pump to erode tissue
Ex. Flukes living in blood vessels are immersed in its semifluid blood food, so has no necessity to breach host tissue
(*pool of ice cream Rocky Road for parasite, Analog)
109
Digenea Reproductive System:
- Most trematodes are hermaphrodites, and some can self-fertilize
- Always cross-fertilize if 2 or more digeneans are in the same host (separate male and female)
- Exceptions are schistosomes that are dioceious
Ectolecithal system: yolk is contributed by vitelline cells, yolk not stored in female gamete
110
Digenea Male Reproductive System:
Testes: usually 2, number varies with species (*some could have more than 2)
- each testis has a vas efferens that ultimately connects to vas deferens
- internal seminal vesicle: located within the cirrus pouch, stores sperm
Cirrus(*penis): male copulatory organ; cirrus pouch encloses the cirrus
111
Digenea Female Reproductive System:
Ovicapt: Sphincter muscle that controls the release of oocyte from the ovary
Laurer’s canal: vestigial vagina
Mehli’s gland: unicellular mucous and serous glands surrounding the ootype
Ootype: a slightly expanded area of the oviduct surrounded by the Mehlis’ gland
Vitelleria: a group of vitelline glands that produce vitelline cells
- vitelline cells produce the bulk of the shell material and yolk of the egg
Oogenotop: “egg forming apparatus”
112
Digenea , Development:
Polyembryony: Development of a single zygote into more than one offspring
-Somatic cell: contributes to body tissue of the embryo
- Propagatory cell: Stem cells
- they are germinal cells in asexually reproducing forms
Ex. Additional embryo in miracidium, sporocysts, or redia
- give rise to sperm cells in sexual adults
Ex. Sperm and egg
113
Digenea : Leucochloridium variae:
- Definitive host include warblers
- Embryonated eggs are ingested by the terrestrial snail (Succinea ovalis)
- Sporocysts divided into 3 parts:
1. Central body in snail’s hepatopancreas (liver/pancreas)
2. Tube connecting the central body to the broodsac
3. Broodsac in the head-foot of the snail and enters its tentacles
- Brightly colored broodsac pulses in enlarged snail tentacles
- Tailless cercariae in branched sporocysts; metacercaria encyst in broodsac
* his favorite Digenea
114
What did Dr. Sharp said that snails like feces like Dr. Sharp like?
Dark Chocolate Fudge, Vanilla Haagen daz ice cream -- NO CHERRY
115
What is the intermediate host and the definitive host of Leucochloridium variae?
Intermediate: Snail
| Def. : Bird
116
What does Leucochloridium variae does to snail?
They goes to the antennae and create Broodsac, which cause a change of the behavior of the snail and start to go higher on grass and get eaten by birds
117
Pathogen:
any organism or substance a disease state
118
Pathogenicity:
: encompasses the total sum of consequences regarding the presence of a foreign species in the host
- a parasite is pathogenic if it causes changes in the anatomy, physiology or behavior of the host
119
Virulence:
: deals with the consequences of the presence of the foreign species on the transmission of the host genes
- a parasite is virulent if it reduces the hosts reproductive success
120
Digenean: Alaria americana
- Parasite of wolves, foxes, coyotes, and the domestic dog (humans are accidental hosts)
- Miracidia hatch out of the egg and penetrate snail
- Sporocysts shed cercariae
- Cercaria penetrate tadpole
- Mesocercaria develop in tadpole
(infective to next host, either paratenic or definitive host)
- Water snake (paratenic host) eats infected tadpole or frog
- Canid eats infected snake and mesocercariae are freed by digestion
- Mesocercariae penetrate gut, move to diaphragm & lungs (metacercariae)
- (after 5 weeks) they migrate up the trachea and then to the small intestine
*mesocercaria is the metacestode
121
Alaria Americana Pathology :
Mature Alaria spp. Very --------- pathogenic causing severe enteritis
- Often kills host in severe infections
- Can be fatal in humans when accumulated in large numbers
122
What organs are concerned if there is a Severe enteritis, gastritis and colonitis
```
Enteritis = small intestine
Gastritis = Stomach
Colonitis = Colon
```
123
how does Dr. Sharp called " catching frog"
Gigging
124
Alaria americana, Epidemiology:
- Found in various species of Canidae in northern north America
- Mesocercariae are pathogenic to human
- Acquired by eating undercooked frog legs (*even on the same cutting board)
- Transmammary transmission of mesocercariae to offspring via milk
*epidemiology means transmission of diseasesand also distribution/prevalence.
125
Population structure:
set of quantitative descriptors of a population, including prevalence, density (mean, abundance), variance of a frequency distribution, and curve of best fit
126
prevalence :
Percentage of a single host species infected at a given time --> %
127
Incidence:
The number of new infections per unit time divided by the number of uninfected hosts at the beginning of the measure time
128
Abundance or density:
average number of parasites of one species per host in a sample of hosts, equal the arithmetic mean
129
Intensity:
the number of parasites of one species in an infected host
130
Mean intensity:
the average number parasites of one species per infected host in a sample
131
Aggregated or overdispersed:
a situation in which most of the parasites occur in a relatively minority of hosts and most host individuals are either uninfected or lightly infected
132
Parasite community:
the number of different parasite species infecting a single host individual.
133
Macroepidemiology:
Study of the effects of large scale factors, such as CLIMATE and CULTURE on distribution of disease in a population
134
Microepidemiology:
study of the effects of small scale factors, such as PARASITIC STRAINS, HOST GENETIC VARIATION, on distribution of disease in a population
135
Landscape Epidemiology:
approach of epidemiology that employs all ecological aspects of a nidus
- By recognizing certain physical conditions, the epidemiologist can anticipate whether a disease can be expected to exist
136
Nidus:
Specific location of a given disease; results of a unique combination of ecological factors that favor maintenance and transmission of a disease organism.
137
Digenean: Schistosoma spp, Family:
Schistosomatidae: have no 2nd intermediate host in their life cycles
- mature in the blood vascular system of their definitive host
- most species are dioecious
138
Digenean: Schistosoma spp, Genus:
Schistosoma: refers to the “split body” of the male
Considerable sexual dimorphisms exist which include:
- males have tegumental tubercles
- male are shorter and stouter than females
- males have a ventral longitudinal groove (gynecophoral canal)
139
Digenean, Schistosoma mansoni:
found in the portal veins draining the large intestine
- moderate host specificity
- reservoir host include: rodents and monkeys
140
Digenean, Schistosoma japonicum:
more concentrated in the veins of the small intestines
- least host specific
- reservoir host include: rodents, cats, dogs, pigs, cattle, horses, and deer
141
Digenan, Schistosoma haematobium:
prefers the veins of the urinary bladder
| -most host specific ( no known reservoir host)
142
What is the Definitive host of Schistosomae and how does it get infected?
Humans are the def. host and they get infected by swimming into fresh water aquatic
143
Digenean Schistosomes Pathology migratory phase:
time from penetration until schistosome is reproductively mature
-often no symptoms or dermatitis reaction
144
Digenean Schistosomes Pathology Acute phase:
(Katayama fever): occurs when schistosomes begin producing eggs
- sufficient time and exposure has elapsed to elicit humoral response
- egg production dramatically increases antigen release causing: chills, fever, fatigue, headache, malaise, muscle aches, GI discomfort etc.
145
Digenean Schistosomes Pathology Chronic Phase:
- S. Mansoni- hepatic and pulmonary cirrhosis, hepatosplenomegaly
- S. Haematobium- bladder wall becomes ulcerated, bloody urine (hematuria)
- S. Japonicum- hepatic and pulmonary cirrhosis, hepatosplenomegany
146
Digenean Schistosomes, Epidemiology :
- human waste water containing intermediate host is #1 empidemiological factor
S. mansoni: broad distribution: Africa, middle east, South America, and Caribbean
S. japonicum: limited to Japan, China, Taiwan, the Philippines, and Southeast Asia
S. haematobium: limited to Africa and adjacent regions
- Schistosomes may live 20 to 30 years
- Schistosomiasis transmission has been reported from 78 countries
- More than 66.5 million people were treated for schistosomiasis in 2015
- 200,000 deaths per year
147
Concomitant immunity in Schistosomes
host is protected against new infections, but the parasite eliciting the immunity remain alive and unaffected
148
Digenean: fasciola Hepatica main view:
Parasite of ruminants (cattle, goats, sheep, deer, etc.) and humans
- Adult parasite feeds on lining of bile ducts
149
Digenean: Fasciola hepatica, pathology:
- Much necrosis results from migration of flukes through liver parenchyma
- Anemia sometimes results from heavy infections
- Worms in bile ducts cause inflammation, edema, and stimulates fibrosis
- Migrating juveniles cause ulcers in ectopic locations: eyes, brain, skin & lungs (*could be lost; it happens)
150
Digenean: Fasciola hepatica, Ruminants:
- Enormous losses in livestock because of mortality
- Reduction of milk and meat products; and especially spoiled livers
- Secondary bacterial infections
- Expensive anthelmintic treatment (*hard to access in Under-development countries)
151
Where does the Fasciola hepatica goes from the liver to the small intestine?
It goes from cystic duct to common duct and then duodenum (small intestine)
152
Dr. Sharp said that Fasciola hepatica look like ....
Leafs
153
What does Fasciola hepatica do in the eye and how to know if it is alive?
it feeds on the rednot and it's alive because it moves
154
Digenean Fasciola Hepatica; Epidemiology:
Can live as long as 11 years
- Infection begins when metacercarial cyst is ingested from water or vegetation
- Human often infected by eating watercress
- Sheep, cattle, goats and rabbits are most frequent reservoirs of infection in US
- Few human cases in US; most common in the South and West
- Human infections occur in Europe, northern Africa, Cuba, South America, & other locales
- WHO estimates 2.4 million persons were afflicted with fascioliasis worldwide in 2018
155
What does Fasciola hepatica reside in what type of vegetation?
Watercress
156
Digenean: Ribeiroia ondatrae;
- National attention in 2007 regarding reports of deformed amphibians
- 1st intermediate host are various freshwater snails
- 2nd intermediate hosts are fish and larval amphibians (frogs and salamanders)
- Large numbers of metacercariae encyst where hind limbs buds form in tadpoles
- Encysted metacercariae cause deformation of hind limbs
- Definitive hosts include herons, hawks, and badgers
157
Digenean: Dicrocoelium dendriticum;
- Common in bile ducts of sheep, cattle, goats, deer, and pigs
- No need for aquatic environment for any life cycle stages
* Altruistic means share without caring
158
*when does cows eat?
Dusk and Dawn
159
Digenean: Dicrocoelium dendriticum, Pathology;
- Conditions of dicrocoeliasis is similar to fascioliasis, but less severe
- No trauma to gut wall or liver parenchyma (no migrating juveniles)
- Chronic constipation, bile duct inflammation, fibrosis, and hepatocyte degeneration
160
Digenean: Dicrocoelium dendriticum, Epidemiology:
- Common throughout most of Europe, Asia, Africa, North and South America
- Acquired by accidental ingestion of ants on fresh herbs or vegetation
161
What is the A.K.A. of Clonorchis sinensis ?
Human liver fluke
162
Digenean: Chlonorchis sinensis, Pathology;
- Erosion of epithelium in larger bile ducts & main branches
- Inflammation becomes prominent, fibrosis, necrosis, and atrophy of surrounding liver tissue
- Trapped eggs become surrounded by granulomas, interfering with liver function
- Eggs and sometimes entire worms become nuclei of gallstones
- Cancer of the bile duct is often associated with clonorchiasis
163
Case reports of Clonorchis sinensis;
A 62 year old man reported fatigue, fever, and cramping abdominal pain for 7 day.
- recently had eaten raw pond smelt (Hypomesus olidus)
- duodenoscopy was performed with cannulation of the common bile duct
164
Digenean: Chlonorchis sinensis, Epidemiology;
- Can live 8 years in humans
- Clonorchiasis is common in countries that eat raw fish
- Reservoir hosts include dogs, cats, pigs, and rats that contaminate streams
- Widely distributed in Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and Vietnam
- Eating frozen, dried, or pickled fish imported from endemic areas has caused infection
- Metacercariae will withstand freezing, drying, pickling, salting, and smoking fish
- May be futile to get millions of people to break century old habit
- Educating people to cook fish not option for many because fuel is a luxury
- Fish farms contaminated with human feces (“night soil” used as fertilizer) throughout much of Asia
165
What is the A.K.A. of Paragonimus Westermani?
Human Lung Fluke
166
Digenean: Paragonimus westermani, Pathology;
- Once in lung or ectopic site, worm stimulates an inflammatory response
- Parasite becomes enshrouded in granuloma
- Eggs in surrounding tissues result in pseudotubercles
- Worms in spinal cord can cause paralysis
- Fatal cases are seen when Paragonimus spp. Locate in heart or brain
- Pulmonary cases are rarely fatal; chronic cough, breathing difficulty, sputum containing blood
167
* Where does the paragonimus westermani infect the crab?
by the joint
168
Digenean: Paragonimus westermani, Epidemiology;
- Reservoir hosts often include felids, canids, rodents and pigs
- Worms can live 10 to 20 years
- Human become infected by eating raw or insufficiently cooked crustaceans
- Marination in brine, vinegar, or wine have no affect on metacercariae
- Exposure can also come from contaminated fingers and cooking utensils
- Some ethnic groups use of juices strained from crushed crab or crayfish for medicinal purposes (poultice)
- Variety of mammals and some birds can serve as paratenic hosts
Ex. Guinea pigs: considered a delicacy in Ecuador and Peru
169
Anhelmintics; Praziquantal (Biltricide)
- Developed by Bayer and Merck in the mid 1970s
- On the World Health Organization’s list of Essential Medicines
- Drug of choice by CDC effective against: Alariasis, Clonorchiasis, Paragonimiasis, Dicrocoeliasis, Schistosomiasis, Dipylidiasis, hymenolepiasis, Taeniasis
- Increases calcium ion permeability of membranes; induces contraction & paralysis
- Available in the United States as Biltricide by Bayer
(1 dose pack – 6 tablets - $105.00)
170
Anhelmintics; Albendazole (Albenza)
- developed by SmithKline in 1972
- Broad-spectrum anhelmintic
- On the World Health Organization’s list of essential medicines
- ALTERNATIVE drug of choice by CDC effective against: Clonorchiasis
- Binds to colchicine-sensitive site of tubulin eliminating its polymerization into microtubules leading to impaired uptake of glucose
- Available in the United States as Albenza by GlaxoSmithKline
(1 dose pack – 2 tablets - $215.00)
171
Anhelmintic; Triclabendazole (Egaten)
On the World Health - ----
- Organization’s list of Essential Medicines
- Drug of choice by CDC effective against: FASCIOLIASIS
Binds to beta-tubulin preventing the polymerization of microtubules leading to impaired uptake of glucose and depletion of glycogen
- NOT available in the United States, but is available through CDC
172
Phylum : Platyhelminthes
```
Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Platyhelminthes
Class: Turbellaria
Cestoidea
Trematoda
Subclass: Digenea
Aspidobothrea
```
173
Class: Cestoidea;
a class within the phylum Platyhelminthes
- monoecious parasites, hermaphrodites
- acoelomates; no digestive system
- adults live in the digestive tract of vertebrates
174
Cestoidea; scolex, neck, strobila, and proglottids; form and function
Scolex: “head” or holdfast organ of a tapeworm
- may have suckers, grooves, hooks, spines, glands, or tentacles
- contains the neutral ganglia of the worm
Neck: an undifferentiated zone located between the scolex and the strobila
-contains stem cells responsible for giving rise to new proglottids
Strobila: region of tapeworm behind the scolex & neck; chain of proglottids
Proglottids: a segment in a strobila that includes male & female reproductive organs
- proglottids can copulate with itself, with others in its strobila; or with those in other worms, depending on the species
175
Cestoidea; Polyzoic and Monozoic:
Polyzoic: a strobila consisting of more than one proglottid
Monozoic: tapeworm whose “strobila” consists of a single proglottid
176
Cestoidea; strobilation, gravid, apolysis, anapolysis and hyperapolysis
Strobilation: formation of a chain of proglottids by budding
Gravid: a proglottid containing fully developed eggs or shelled embryos
Apolysis: disintegration or detachment of a gravid tapeworm segment
Anapolysis: (pseudoapolysis): detachment of senile proglottid after it has shed its eggs
Hyperapolysis: detachment of a proglottid while still mature, before eggs are formed
- may lead an independent existence in the gut while maturing
177
Cestoidea; Craspedote and Acraspedote:
Craspedote: posterior edge of each segment overlaps the anterior edge of next segment (stacked cones)
Acraspedote: posterior edge of proglottid does not overlap anterior edge of the next (sausages)
178
*What did Dr. Sharp said about asking for food if it is ice cream or sausage.
To ask for craspedote to the ice cream guy
To ask for acraspedote to the butcher if it is sausage or boudin
179
Cestoidea; Acetabula, bothridia, rostellum and bothria;
Acetabula: a sucker on the scolex of the tapeworm; normally 4 acetabula on a scolex
Bothridia: usually in groups of 4; can have highly mobile, leaflike margins with adaptations for adhesion
Rostellum: dome-shaped area on the apex of the scolex, often with hooks
Bothria: usually 2 in number (dorsal and ventral), and take the form of shallow pits
180
Cestoidea; Tegument
- Tegument of cestodes is a syncytium
- No digestive tract
- All required substances are absorbed through their tegument
- Distal cytoplasm is connected to cytons by channels or internuncial processes
181
What does Tegument have on the outer layer?
Microtriches (*spikes like)
182
Cestoidea; Microtriches:
are numerous minute finger-shaped tubules that extend out of tegument
- Increases the absorption area of the tegument
- Completely cover the worm’s surface
- Glycocalyx is found on the surface membrane of microtriches
- Below microtriches is a layer of distal cytoplasm
183
Cestoidea; Muscular System:
- Muscle cells consist of 2 portion: CONTRACTILE myofibril and NONCONTRACTILE myocyton
- Contractile portion contains actin and myosin fibrils, and it is nonstriated (*smooth muscle)
- Myocytons comprise most of the cestodes parenchyma
- Bundles of longitudinal and circular muscle fibers lie below the distal cytoplasm
- More powerful musculature lies below the superficial muscles
184
Cestoidea; Nervous system:
- Nervous system of cestodes displays the orthogon plan typical of Platyhelminthes
- Main nerve center is located in the scolex
- Innervation of ganglia, commissures, and motor and sensory occurs at the main nerve center; complexity often depends on complexity of scolex
- Sensory function most likely includes tactoreception and chemoreception
185
Cestoidea: Excretion and Osmoregulation
- Main excretory canals run from the scolex to the posterior end of the strobila
- Canal empties at the end of the strobila when terminal proglottids detach
- Excretory ducts are lined with microvilli (*needed to collect food, glucose)
- Flame cell protonephridia provide motive force to the fluid in the system
- End products of cestode energy metabolism are excreted through the tegument
- Osmoregulation is also function of tegument
186
Cestoidea: Reproductive System;
- Monoecious; few exceptions (*hermaphrodites)
- In mature proglottid, sperm is transferred and oocytes are fertilized
- Usually male organs mature first, sperm is stored until maturation of the ovary
PROTANDRY(androgyny): maturation first of male gonads and then of females
- In a few species the ovary matures first, known as PROTOGYNY
- May be an adaptation that prevents self fertilization of the same proglottids
- Usually reproductive pores of both sexes open into a genital atrium
187
What analog did DR. Sharp said about Reproductive system of Cestoidea?
in Nemo, Marlin the fish (the father) should have become a female after.
188
Cestoidea: Male reproductive system:
- One to many testes, each has vas efferens, unites into common vas deferens
- Sperm channeled toward the genital pore
- Cirrus pouch, a muscular sheath containing cirrus
- The male copulatory organ is the muscular cirrus, which may have spines
189
Cestoidea: Female reproductive system:
- Ovary and associated structures
- The entire complex is known as the oogenotop
- Vitelline cells contribute yolk and shell material to the embryo
- Oocytes leave ovary through the oviduct, which has a sphincter, or OOCAPT
190
Cestoidea: Development;
1. Embryogenesis within the egg gives rise to larva (oncosphere)
2. Oncosphere hatches and penetrates extraintestinal site
3. Metamorphosis of the larva into a juvenile (metacestode) in extraintestinal site
4. Metacestode develops into adult in the intestine
(*Oncosphere: a six hooked larva hatched from an egg of a eucestode; also known as HEXACANTHES
191
cytokines interleukin-1 (IL-1)
activator of Tcells and B cells
192
prostaglandins
sensitized the pain receptor (increase pain). aspirin and ibuprofen works against it
193
bradykinins
Increase permeability of capillaries causing edemas and swelling
194
Pseudophyllidea: Diphyllobothrium latum
- Broad fish tapeworm
- Occurs in humans, bears, cats, dogs, and other fish-eating carnivores (*piscivorous)
- Adults live in small intestines
- 10 meters in length; More than 4,000 proglottids; sheds 1 million eggs per day
- Eggs released through uterine pore
195
* What does the diphyllobothrium latum does to the fish once infected ?
Alter behavior
196
*How long was the adult worm diphyllobothrium latum in the human after the 28th day of infection ?
4.25 meter long
197
Pseudophyllidea: Diphyllobothrium latum, Pathology;
- pernicious anemia; large amount of B12 absorbed by tapeworm
Sparganosis: infectious disease cause by migrating plerocercoids in host tissues
- Can reach 35cm in length; can live for at least 30 years
1) Swallowing procercoid-infected copepods in drinking water
2) Eating amphibians, reptiles, and mammals containing plerocercoids
3) Applying plerocercoid-infected in flesh to wounds as a poultice
198
* what is the meaning of poultice?
to apply fresh meat to a human wounds, one way to get infected with plerocercoid
199
*What was the lawsuit story in New York?
that the water was having procopod in the drinking water, but would not get them affected. (Diphyllobothrium latum)
200
*What is the name of an infectious disease when a plerocercoids infect another part of the target organ?
Sparganosis
201
*Dr. Sharp showed a video of a colonoscopy procedure showing a worm in the small intestine, what is the scientific name of the parasite?
Diphyllobothrium latum
202
Pseudophyllidea: Diphyllobothrium latum, Epidemiology:
- Eating undercooked freshwater fish
- Accidental ingestion of copepod from unfiltered water
- Insufficiently cooked frog, snake, or pig
- Poulticing inflamed area or wound with split frog
203
Cyclophyllidea: Taenia saginata
- Beef tapeworm
- Occurs in humans in countries where beef is eaten
- 3 to 5 meters in length; more than 2,000 proglottids
- Adult beef tapeworm lives in small intestine
- Gravid segments detach and pass out with feces or migrate out of anus
- Proglottid begins to dry and ruptures, thus releasing eggs
- Larvae (hexacanth), remain viable for weeks
204
Cyclophyllidea: Taenia saginata, Pathology;
- May be asymptomatic
- Symptoms of dizziness, headache, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and nausea
- Intestinal obstruction with need for surgical intervention sometimes occurs
- Loss of appetite is not frequent
- Delirium is rare
205
Cyclophyllidea: Taenia saginata, Epidemiology;
- Infection is highest where beef is major food and sanitation is deficient
- One person who defecates in pasture can infect entire herd
- Use of human feces as fertilizer (night soil)
- Cattle are coprophagous
206
Cyclophyllidea: Taenia solium:
- Pork tapeworm
- Most dangerous adult tapeworm to humans
- Humans can serve as definitive and intermediate host
- Life cycle same as beef tapeworm except normal intermediate host is pig
- Humans become an intermediate host when eggs are accidentally ingested or gravid proglottid ruptures releasing eggs before it leaves the body
207
Cyclophyllidea: Taenia solium, Pathology:
- Cystircerci can be found in any organ and tissue including:
(1) subcutaneous connective tissue
(2) eye
(3) brain (epilepsy, blindness, paralysis, disequilibrium, etc)
(4) muscles
(5) heart
(6) liver
(7) lungs
(8) coelom
208
Cyclophyllidea: Taenia solium, epidemiology:
- Infection is highest where pork is a major food and sanitation is deficient
- Eggs can be transmitted by blowflies
- Infected (domestic help) person can contaminate their household or food
Ex. 1.3% Orthodox Jewish community in New York infected by T. Solium
- Cysticercosis is highly endemic in Mexico, Central and much of South America, sub-Saharan Africa, India, China, and other parts of eastern Asia
209
Cyclophyllidea: Echinoccocus granulosus
- Adults are in small intestine of carnivores, particularly dogs and other canines
- Herbivores (intermediate hosts) are infected by eating eggs on contaminated herbage
- Within liver or lungs oncosphere metamorphoses into unilocular hydatid
Sylvatic cycle: life cycles that involve wild animals
Ex. (wolf-moose, lion-warthog, etc)
Urban or domestic cycle: life cycle that involve rats and domesticated animals
Ex. (Dog-sheep, dog-goat, dog-pig, etc.)
210
hydated cyst:
- Hydatid has thick outer noncellular layer and thin inner nucleated germinal layer
- Brood capsules on inner layer of hydatid, each capsule has 10-30 protoscolices
- Brood capsules within hydatid break down and release “hydatid sand”
211
Cyclophyllidea: Echinoccocus granulosus, Pathology:
- Hydatid cyst can occur in any organ: liver, lungs, brain, etc.
- Type and extent of pathology depends on cyst size and location
- As cyst size increases it crowds adjacent tissues and organs interfering with function
- Cyst can become enormous: > 3 gallons of fluid, millions of protoscolices
- Release of hydatid fluid may cause anaphylactic shock
212
Cyclophyllidea: Echinoccocus granulosus, Epidemiology:
- Human becomes infected when they accidentally ingest egg when playing with dog
- Some tribes in Kenya relish dog intestine roasted on a stick
- Tanners in Lebanon use dog scats as an ingredient of a solution for tanning leather
- Echinococcosis disease can be eliminated in infected areas by the following
(1) General educational program
(2) Denying access of dogs to offal
(3) Destroying stray dogs
213
*What is offal ?
rest of the food for dogs given by humans
214
*What is the scientific name of the species of the ball that was taken out of the brain of a young girl?
Hydatid cyst of Echinoccocus granulosus
215
Cyclophyllidea: Echinoccocus multilocularis:
- Adult E. multilocularis mainly found in foxes or rodents
- Dogs, cats, and coyotes can also serve as definitive hosts
- Several species of rodent serve as intermediate host: mice, rats, voles, lemmings
- E. multilocularis metacestode is alveolar or multilocular hydatid
- Alveolar cyst has thin wall and germinal epithelium
- May bud externally and spread in any direction or even metastasize
216
Where does Echinococcus multilocularis are found in humans?
Liver
217
Cyclophyllidea: Hymenolepis nana:
- Dwarf tapeworm (4 cm)
- One of the most common cestodes of humans
- Intermediate host is optional (can develop normally in larval and adult beetles)
- Human or rodent ingest egg, oncosphere hatches out of egg in duodenum
- Oncosphere penetrates mucosa and develops into cysticercoid (metacestode)
- Within 6 days cysticercoid return to lumen of small intestine to attach and mature
218
Why Hymenolepis nana is more dangerous than diminuta?
because nana is Auto-infection
219
Cyclophyllidea: Hymenolepis nana, Pathology;
- Light infections are asymptomatic
- Heavy infections can occur because of autoinfection
- Symptoms are similar to those previously mentioned for Taenia saginata
220
Cyclophyllidea: Hymenolepis nana, Epidemiology:
- More than 20 million people infected world wide (*mostly little kids)
- Prevalence of infection is highest for small children; ingestion of eggs
- Ingestion of grain products contaminated with infected insects (flour beetles)
- Rodent control measures and protection from their droppings
221
Cyclophyllidea: Hymenolepis diminuta:
- Much larger than H. nana (90 cm)
- Common in rats; human infections not common
- Completion of lifecycles requires an arthropod intermediate host ( > 90 insect species)
- Other life cycle characteristics similar to H. nana
222
Cyclophyllidea: Hymenolepis diminuta, Pathology:
- Most infections are asymptomatic
| - Some symptoms may include nausea, abdominal pains, diarrhea, and anorexia
223
*what is Dr. Sharp favorite breakfast?
Honey Oats with Almond milk
224
*What does dr. Sharp do to a chips bag to make sure no rats touched it?
He put pressure to see if there is air
225
What does Dr. Sharp saw at a burger king?
He saw a family where the kid, saw a fly and ate it in front of the parents.
226
What is Zoonosis?
a infectious disease that can be transmitted to human by animals
227
Cyclophyllidea: Hymenolepis diminuta, Epidemiology:
- Primarily a zoonosis: a disease of animals transferable to humans
- Rodent control measures to prevent insect consumption of their droppings
- Protection from insects of cereals, grains or other non-cooked foods
228
Cyclophyllidea: Dipylidium caninum:
- Common parasite of dogs and cats all over the world; often occurs in children
- Adult worms found in the small intestine
- Gravid proglottid detach and either wander out of anus or is passed with feces
- When detached segment desiccates, egg capsules are released
229
*Dr Sharp showed a video of a dog's anus having parasite, what was the name of the parasite?
Dipylidium caninum, proglottid was coming out.
230
cyclophyllidea: Dipylidium caninum, Pathology:
- Light infections are often asymptomatic
| - Some individuals experience abdominal pain, diarrhea, and anal itching
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Cyclophyllidea: Dipylidium caninum, Epidemiology:
- Most likely to occur in small children who kiss or are licked by infected pet
- Periodic deworming of infected dogs and cats and control of flea is essential
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Anhelmintics: Niclosamide;
- On the World Health Organization’s list of Essential Medicines
- Used specifically to treat cestode infections
- ALTERNATIVE drug of choice by CDC effective against: Dipylidiasis, and Taeniasis
- Uncouples oxidative phosphorylation severely limiting ATP production
- Not available in the United States
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*What food is the best to get rat in the trap?
Kit Kat
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*What was the story that Dr. Sharp mentor did to take a tapeworm to be exposed?
The mentor took 2 big fat white rat and feed the beetle feces and then he would feed the rat with the beetle, then in a room 10 by 10, he would take the rat by the tail and then he would smash their head on a table and then rip out their spine with NO gloves, then he will open them with a scapel but still no glove took the tapeworm.
*Dr. Sharp belief that he get off with the killing.
