Paper 3 Terminology Flashcards
Outline quantitative research methods (5).
Experiment: Experimenters decide on a single variable (independent) which they manipulate, while all other variables which might affect the IV are controlled.
Field experiment: Seek relationships between IV and DV, but are not conducted under controlled environments and participants are often unaware they are being observed, e.g. in a shopping centre (increased ecological validity, decreased internal validity).
Quasi-experiment: Conditions of experiment are naturally occurring rather than randomly allocated, so the researchers do not have control over this (lack of internal validity).
Natural experiment: Independent variable is naturally occurring, meaning it may lack internal validity as relationship may be due to extraneous variables.
Correlational: No manipulated variable and do not seek to establish casual relationships, but have two or more measured variables (co-variables). Used when it is not ethically or practically possible to manipulate variables.
Outline qualitative research methods (7).
Naturalistic observation (participant): Observer collects data from participants in their natural environments without manipulation of setting. Researcher becomes actively involved in the group being studied.
Naturalistic observation (non-participant): Observer collects data from participants in natural environments without manipulation of setting. Researcher remains separate from the group being studied and does not interact with participants.
Naturalistic observation (covert): Observer collects data from participants in natural environments without manipulation of setting. Participants are unaware they are being observed, which is ethical if it is a public space.
Case study: Focus on a single individual, group or organisation, often collecting rich qualitative data, collected using a variety of methods (method triangulation).
Unstructured interview: Interviews with a clear research objective and interview schedule which has themes or broad topics for the interview, but there is no ‘script’.
Semi-structured interview: More flexible than a structured interview, it has a set list of questions including both open and closed questions, which the interviewer may deviate from.
Focus group interview: 8-12 people are interviewed together about a common topic of interest, where the researcher becomes the group facilitator.
Outline sampling methods (5)
Random: Participants are randomly selected and allocated to conditions, everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being chosen.
Opportunity/convenience: Uses participants which are willing and able to take part in the experiment at the time.
Volunteer: Participants self-select to become part of the study, e.g. responding to an advertisement.
Purposive: Researchers seek participants with specific qualities which they are interested in studying to be part of the study.
Snowball: Current participants help recruit more participants by recruiting others they know who meet the criteria if they are interested.
Stratified sampling: Researcher divides or ‘stratifies’ the target group into sections, each representing a key group (or characteristic) that should be present in the final sample.
Outline ethical considerations (7).
Consent: Psychologists must tell participants of the study’s purpose and procedures which will be used, be made aware of any potential risks, adverse effects which may occur during the study.
Anonymity: Data collected must not conatin names an should not be able to be traced to particular individuals. Can assign codes and not ask for identifying information.
Right to withdraw: Participants may leave a study at any time and not feel pressured to continue. They must be aware of this.
Deception: Deception by commission is where participants are deliberately mislead and deception by omission is where researchers intentionally leave out informaton. Should be avoided unless there is no alternative.
Undue stress or harm: Researchers must ensure participants are protected from mental and physical harm. It must be no higher risk than everyday life.
Debriefing: After research, the researcher should discuss the procedure and findings with participants, including if deception has occurred.
Discuss triangulation.
- Used to increase credibility and done to overcome potential biases.
Method triangulation: Different methods are used in the same study which takes advantage of strengths of different research methods and compensates for methodological limitations.
Data triangulation: Comparison of data from multiple sources provides additional sources to describe the phenomenon under observation.
Researcher triangulation: More than one researcher is used to collect and analyse data which counteracts researcher bias as interpretations are discussed.
Theory triangulation: Several and sometimes competing theories are used to analyse data which provides a deeper, more credible understanding of the the topic investigated.
Discuss reflexivity.
- Important that the researcher is aware of their own beliefs so they do not affect the interpretation of participant behaviour.
- Must address and separate from their own biases so they do not affect the data.
Personal reflexivity: Your own opinions, stereotypes experience and ideas about a topic.
Epistemological reflexivity: Your knowledge and understanding of the topic, whether research design allows a certain bias, sampling criteria used and expected results.
Outline types of bias (3).
Researcher bias: When the beliefs or opinions of the researcher influence the outcomes or conclusions of the research.
Participant bias: participants form an interpretation of the experiment’s purpose and subconsciously change their behaviour to fit that interpretation: Expectancy effect, reactivity, screw you effect, social desirability effect.
Samplig bias: Occurs when the sample is not representative of the target population.
Outline types of validity (4).
Construct validity: The degree to which a test or instrument is capable of measuring a concept, trait, or other theoretical entity.
Ecological validity: A measure of how test performance predicts behaviors in real-world settings.
External validity: The generalizability of results, asking whether a causal relationship holds over variation in persons, settings, treatments and outcomes.
Internal validity: Whether the effects observed in a study are due to the manipulation of the independent variable and not some other factor.
Discuss generalising findings.
Representational generalisation: Findings from qualitative research studies can be applied to populations outside the population of the study.
Inferential generalisation: Findings of the study can also be applied to settings outside the setting of the study.
Theoretical generalisation: Theoretical concepts derived from the study can be used to develop further theory.
How can credbility in qualitative research be increased?
Experimental studies: Improve internal validity by controlling confounding variables.
Correlational studies: Improve credibility by using reliable ways to measure variables and avoiding biases in interpreting results.
Qualitative research: Improve credibility by triangulation, reflexivity, establishing a rapport, iterative questioning, credibility checks and thick descriptions.
