Paper 3: Issues and Debates

Question 1

(AO1)

What is meant by free will?

Answer 1

• human beings essentially self-determining + free to choose own thoughts/actions
• Does not deny may be biological/environmental forces that exert some influence on behaviour, but able reject those forces if we wish
• Human behaviour advocated by the humanistic approach

Question 2

(AO1)

What is meant by determinism?

Answer 2

• free will has no place in explaining behaviour
• Hard determinism = (fatalism) all human behaviour has cause + should be possible identify/describe causes. Everything we think + do indicated by internal/external forces cannot control
• Soft determinism = W. James (1980) put forward the notion of it - position later became an important feature of the cog approach. Though it may be job of scientists to explain what determines our behaviour, it does not detract from the freedom we have to make rational conscious choices in everyday situations.

Question 3

(AO1)

Name and describe the three types of determinism.

Answer 3

1. Biological determinism = e.g. influence autonomic nervous system on stress response or influence of genes on mental health. Modern day biologists recognise mediating influence of the environment on our biological structures.
2. Environmental determinism = B.F. Skinner described free will ‘an illusion’ + argued behaviours result from conditioning. Although might think acting independently, experience ‘choice’ merely sum total of reinforcement contingencies acted upon us throughout lives.
3. Psychic determinism = Freud believed ‘illusion’ but emphasised influence of biological drives/instincts. Saw human behaviour determined by unconscious conflict, repressed in childhood. No such thing as an accident, even slip of the tongue can be explained by unconsciousness.

Question 4

(AO1)

Scientific emphasis on casual relationships?

Answer 4

• Basic principle of science every event in universe has cause + that cases can be explained using general laws (hard determinism)> Knowledge of causes + formulation of laws important allow scientists predict + control events in future.
• in psychology lab experiment ideal of science as enables researchers demonstrate causal relationships - it’s like test tube used in other sciences where all variables be controlled.

Question 5

(AO3)

Free will and determinism

Answer 5

1. Practical value = Strength of free will rather than determinism, is its practical value. Common-sense view is that we exercise free choice in our everyday lives on a daily basis. Even if not the case, thinking we do can improve our mental health. Study looked at adolescents who had strong belief in fatalism - lives ‘decided’ by events outside contro. Study found these adolescents significantly greater risk developing depression. Seems those exhibit an external locus control less likely to be optimistic. Suggests, even if not, facts we believe may have a positive impact on mind + behaviour.
2. Research evidence = Limitation of free-will is that brainscan evidence not support, but does determinism - study instructed ppts choose a random moment to flick their wrist whilst measured activity in brain for ‘readiness potential’. Ppts had say when they felt conscious will to move. Found the unconscious brain activity leading up conscious decision came around 50s before ppts consciously felt they decided. Even our basic experiences of free will are actually determined by our brain before we are aware like that of which Freud suggests.
   CP: findings show brain involved in decision-making - not surprising, be as expected. Just cause action comes before conscious awareness to act, don’t mean there was no decision to act - just decision act took to time reach consciousness. Council’s awareness decision is simply ‘read-out’ of our unconscious decision-making. Suggest evidence not appropriate as challenge to free will.
3. The Law = Limitation of determinism (strength free will) is position of legal system on responsibility. Hard determinism stance individual choice not cause of behaviour. Not consistent with the way our legal system operates. Court of law, offenders held responsible for their actions. Indeed, main principle legal system is that a defendant exercised free will in committing crime. Suggests that in real world determinist arguments not work.
4. Humanist psychologists argue against the determinism view = claim humans have self-determination + free will + that behaviour is not result of single cause. Further, there is evidence to support humanist psychologists e.g. identical twin studies typically find an 80% similarity in intelligence scores + a 40% similarity in the likelihood of depression. However, as identical twins share 100% of their genes, these results suggest that 20% is caused by other (environmental) factors. Demonstrates that biological determinism is unable to explain any particular behaviour i.e. depression + intelligence. The same evidence indicates that no behaviour is completely environmentally determined. If identical twins only show an 80% likeness in terms of intelligence, it is therefore assumed that only 20% is caused by the environment.

Question 6

(AO1)

What is meant by idiographic?

Answer 6

• focus on individual cases as means of understanding behaviour

Question 7

(AO1)

What is meant by the Nomothetic approach?

Answer 7

• Aims to study human behaviour through development of general principles and universal laws.

Question 8

(AO1)

Outline the key concepts of the idiographic debate.

Answer 8

• Qualitative research

- Examples in psychology = Humanistic + psychopathology e.g. Carl Rogers and Freud

Question 9

(AO1)

Outline the key concepts of the Nomothetic debate.

Answer 9

• Quantitive research i.e. traditional model of scientific methods
• Examples In psychology = Biological + Behaviourist approaches e.g. B.F. Skinner study animals for general laws

Question 10

(AO1)

Objective vs subjective in the ideographic/nomothetic debate

Answer 10

• Objectivity lies at the heart of the nomothetic debate. Laws only possible if methods assessment delivered in standardised way
• Subjectivity is idiographic

Question 11

(AO3)

For Idiographic vs Nomothetic debate

Answer 11

1. Complete account = strength idiographic approach contributes to nomothetic i.e. idiographic in-depth qualitative methods + provides global explanation of one individual. May complement nomothetic by shedding further light on general laws or indeed by challenging such laws. E.g. a single case may generate hypotheses for further study. Cases like HM may reveal important insights about normal functioning which may contribute to overall understanding.
   CP: Supporters of idiographic should still acknowledge narrow and restricted nature of their work. Meaningful generalisations cannot be made without further examples as this means there no adequate baseline which compare behaviour. Methods associated with idiographic approaches i.e. case studies tend to be less scientific and are open to bias as result. Suggests difficult to build effective general theories of human behaviour in complete absence of nomothetic research.
2. Scientific credibility = Strength both approaches fit with the aims of science - processes involved in nomothetic similar to those in natural sciences e.g. establishing objectivity through standardisation, control and statistical testing. However, researchers using idiographic also seek objectivity in methods. E.g. triangulation used whereby findings from range studies using different qualitative methods compared as way of increasing validity. Also, modern quantitative researcher careful to reflect upon their own biases + preconceptions as part of research process. Suggests both nomothetic + idiographic approaches raise psychology’s status as science.
3. Losing the person = One limitation nomothetic is loss of understanding of the individual. Fact nomothetic is preoccupied with general laws, prediction + control means it has been accused of ‘losing whole person’ within psychology. E.g. knowing there is 1% lifetime risk developing schitz tells us little about what life is like for some1 who been diagnosed with disorder. Understanding subjective experience of schitz might prove useful when devising appropriate treatment options. Means, in search of generalities, nomorehtic may sometimes fail relate to ‘experience’.
4. nomothetic approach viewed as scientific, so useful for predicting + controlling behaviour = e.g. Biological Psychologists take a nomothetic approach when explaining OCD + claim that OCD is caused by higher levels of dopamine and lower levels of serotonin. Drug therapies are developed on the basis of nomothetic research and work by readdressing a biological imbalance. SSRIs are used to treat OCD and increase the availability and uptake of serotonin, thus reducing the anxiety associated with OCD which helps to improve the lives of people suffering from this condition, as a result of nomothetic research.
   CP: However, as drug treatments not successful for all patients, some psychologists argue that alternate treatments (e.g. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy) which are based on an idiographic approach are more suitable for treating individuals with such conditions, as they seek to understand and explain the disorder from a patient’s point of view.

Question 12

(AO1)

Outline what is meant by ethical implications and social sensitivity

Answer 12

• Ethical implications = concern consequences that research (studies/theories) may have. Arguably applies all research but some areas research have greater social sensitivity than others.

E.g. Research on LT memory in student pop is unlikely have consequences for individual ppts (ppts may be drawn from many social groups), unlikely consequences for social policy, but study on depression may have consequences in terms of individual ppts, wider social group they represent + for social policy etc…

Question 13

(AO1)

Implications of research process in relation to social entity and ethical implications

Answer 13

• Research question = Siber and Stanley (1988) warn that the way in which research questions phrased + investigated may influence way in which findings are interpreted. E.g. Kitzinger + Coyle note how research into ‘alternative relationships’ been guilty of form of ‘heterosexual bias within homosexual rels were compared + judged against heterosexual norms.
• Dealing with ppts = Issues i.e. informed consent, confidentiality + psychological harm may be especially important in socially sensitive research. E.g. study on domestic abuse ppts may worry ex peranter found out about study and likely be extremely stressful ppts to describe their experiences. Such may provide informed consent at start, but not fully understand effect of research.
• The ways findings are used = Researchers should consider how findings used. May impact what data actually collect. Especially because findings from research may seen as giving scientific credence to existing prejudices i.e. studies examining ethic basis intelligence. Further, sensitive info exactly what media tend be interested in + will publicise. E.g. Owen’s research people in minimally conscious state received enormous media attention, as appeared made contact patients thought be ‘unreachable’.

Question 14

(AO3)

For ethical implications and social sensitivity?

Answer 14

1. Benefits for groups = strength of socially sensitive research it can have benefits for group been studied e.g. homosexuality. 1952 DSM-1 listed this as ‘sociopathic persoanlity disorder’ but finally emvoed it in 1973. Change credited to Kinsey report which based annoymous interviews with 5000 men about sexual beahvoir. Report concluded homo is normalvariant of human sexual behvaouir. Also included data on 6000 women + caused outrage at times because there were topics no one discussed.
   CP: Downside some may have negative consequences e.g. research investigating genetic basis of criminality found there is ‘criminal gene’. If true, does it mean some1 could be convicted on the basis that they have gene pr should be excused for wrongdoing? Suggests careful consideration of possible outcomes and consequences need assessing beforehand.
2. Real-world application = certain groups e.g. policymakers rely on research related to socially sensitive issues. Gov looks to research when developing important social policies e.g. decisions related to childcare, education, mental health provision and crime etc. Clearly preferable to base such policies on scientific research than politically-motivated views. UK independent groups i.e. ONS who describe themselves being responsible for collecting, analysing and disseminating objective statistics about UK’s economy, society + population. Such data is used in psychological research. Means psychologists have an important role play in providing high quality research on socially sensitive topics.
3. Poor research design = One limit is poor research design may lead to erroneous findings which, once public continue have impact e.g. research into the 11+ which even after the fraud was exposed, it was still used. Indeed 11+ is still used as a selection tool in part uk e.g. Kent and Belfast. Similarly, access many independent school based on child’s performance entrance exam in yr 6 and likely based on same reasoning- genetic potential revealed itself by this age. Therefore any research on social sensitive topics need be planned ensure findings are valid because enduring effect on particular groups of people.
4. Disagreement whether to do or not to research = One way to deal with socially sensitive research is to avoid it. The American psychological association (APA) reported that ethical committees approved 95% of non-sensitive proposals that didn’t include ethical problems whereas ‘sensitive’ proposals were only approved about 50% of the time. However, Sieber and Stanley advised ignoring such topics is not responsible approach. One possibility is to follow qualitative researchers who more up-front about own biases and reflective in their approach (reflect how personal beliefs affect research)