Paper 3 Evaluations

Question 1

Evaluate Gender Bias

Answer 1

Bad - Promotes Sexism in the Research Process
- women are underrepresented in University departments (especially sciences)
- research has shown lecturers are more likely to be male
- this suggests research is more likely to be conducted by men, so it may disadvantage female participants
- this could mean institutional structures and methods of psychology might produce gender bias results or findings

Bad - Research challenging Gender Bias might not be published
Formanowicz:
- analysed over 1,000 articles relating to Gender Bias over 8 years
- found research into Gender Bias was funded less and published less often by prestigious journals
- this means there is less awareness of Gender Bias
- they also found Gender Bias was reported less than other types of bias (e.g. Culture Bias), which suggests Gender Bias is taken less seriously than other types of Bias

Bad - Gender Differences are presented as fixed and enduring when they are not
Maccoby and Jacklin
- presented findings of several gender studies that concluded girls have better verbal ability, and boys have better spatial ability
- they suggested these differences are hard-wired into the brain before birth
- these findings have been widely reported and seen as facts
Joel et al
- used brain scanning to test Maccoby and Jacklin’s theory
- found no sex differences in brain structures or processing
- suggests Maccoby and Jacklin’s findings were popularised as they fit into existing gender stereotypes
- suggests we should be wary of accepting research as biological facts when they may be social stereotypes

Question 2

Evaluate Culture Bias

Answer 2

Bad - Many of the most influential studies in Psychology are Cultural Biased
- Asch and Milgram used US participants only, and when they were replicated in collectivist cultures there were greater levels of conformity and obedience
- this suggests our understanding of some topics (such as social influence) should only be applied to individualist cultures
HOWEVER
Good - Due to increased media globalisation, it is argued the individualist/collectivist distinction no longer applies
- recent research found 14/15 studies that compared the US and Japan found no evidence of individualism or collectivism
- this suggests cultural bias in psychological research may be less of an issue in recent research

Bad - Cultural Bias has led to prejudice against groups of people
- in WWI, intelligence tests for recruits were ethnocentric as they assumed everyone knew American facts (such as president names)
- this meant African Americans and Eastern Europeans received the lowest scores, and their poor performance was used to inform racist beliefs about inferiority
- ethnic minorities were seen as ‘mentally unfit’ compared to white majorities, and they were denied educational and professional opportunities
- this illustrates how Cultural Bias and Ethnocentrism justifies Prejudice and discrimination towards Ethnic Groups

Good - The Emergence of Cultural Psychology
- Cultural/multicultural psychology is the study of how people shape and are shaped by cultural experience
- it is an emerging field
- it takes an Emic approach to avoid Ethnocentric Assumptions
- they research from inside a culture, and if cross-cultural, they only use 2 cultures and avoid large-scale studies
- this suggests modern-day psychologists are more mindful of the dangers of Culture Bias, and are taking steps to avoid it

Question 3

Evaluate Free Will vs Determinism

Answer 3

Free Will:
Good - Practical Value
- we exercise free choice in our everyday life, or at least we think we do
- research looked at adolescents with a strong belief in fatalism - the idea our lives are decided by factors outside of our control (external LOC) - and it found they were at a greater risk of depression than those with internal LOC
- this suggests even believing we have free will may have a positive impact on our mind and behaviour

Good - Our legal system includes Free Will, not Determinism
- Hard determinism suggests individual choice is not the cause of behaviour, but in court, individuals are held responsible for their actions
- the main principle of our legal system is that a defendant exercised their free will to commit a crime
- this suggests deterministic arguments do not work in the real world

Determinism:

Bad - it could excuse evil behaviour
- Stephen Mobley attempted to use Biological Determinism to help his court case
- he claimed he shot the Domino’s Pizza manager due to him possessing a criminal gene as his family were also criminals
- this suggests determinism can be used for negative effects, and that restricted free will should be included to allow blame to be placed on evil individuals

Good - Brain Scan Evidence (biological determinism)
Libet et al
- linked participants to a brain scanning machine and asked them to complete actions and move
- brains illuminated with activity before the participants decided to physically move
- this supports determinism as it suggests even our basic experiences of free will are actually determined by our brain first
However
Bad - this study lacks mundane realism

Question 4

Evaluate Free Will

Answer 4

Good - Practical Value
- we exercise free choice in our everyday life, or at least we think we do
- research looked at adolescents with a strong belief in fatalism - the idea our lives are decided by factors outside of our control (external LOC) - and it found they were at a greater risk of depression than those with internal LOC
- this suggests even believing we have free will may have a positive impact on our mind and behaviour

Good - Our legal system includes Free Will, not Determinism
- Hard determinism suggests individual choice is not the cause of behaviour, but in court, individuals are held responsible for their actions
- the main principle of our legal system is that a defendant exercised their free will to commit a crime
- this suggests deterministic arguments do not work in the real world

Question 5

Evaluate Determinism

Answer 5

Bad - it could excuse evil behaviour
- Stephen Mobley attempted to use Biological Determinism to help his court case
- he claimed he shot the Domino’s Pizza manager due to him possessing a criminal gene as his family were also criminals
- this suggests determinism can be used for negative effects, and that restricted free will should be included to allow blame to be placed on evil individuals

Good - Brain Scan Evidence (biological determinism)
Libet et al
- linked participants to a brain scanning machine and asked them to complete actions and move
- brains illuminated with activity before the participants decided to physically move
- this supports determinism as it suggests even our basic experiences of free will are actually determined by our brain first
However
Bad - this study lacks mundane realism

Question 6

Evaluate the Nature-Nurture Debate

Answer 6

Good - Adoption studies can separate nature and nurture
- a meta-analysis found genetic influences account for 41% of aggression in adopted children
- this suggests there are both genetic and environmental influences on aggression, which supports interactionism

Bad - Research suggests people create their own ‘nurture’ by selecting environments that suit their ‘nature’
- aggressive children in an adoption study might feel more comfortable with people who are similar, so they choose the more aggressive environment
- this suggests we should not try to separate the two

Good - Real world support for Epigenetics
- during WWII, Nazis blocked the food distribution to Dutch people
- 22,000 people died of starvation
- research found women who were pregnant went on to have lower birth weight babies, and these babies were twice as likely to develop schizophrenia
- this support the idea that experiences of previous generations can leave epigenetic markers on the health and genes of their offspring

Good - Real world application
Nestadt
- researched the heritability of OCD
- put it at 0.76
- this can inform genetic counselling
- this matters because it means we can understand the precautions and attempt to reduce stressors
HOWEVER
- we need to understand heritability does not mean inevitability
- it only means there is a risk/likelihood and diathesis

Question 7

Evaluate Holism Vs Reductionism

Answer 7

Holism:

Good - Provides a complete picture
- reductionism can only ever form part of an explanation as other contexts, such as social reasons, are missing
- this may mean holism has greater validity

Bad - May lack practical value
- if we take into account every experience that may affect a behaviour, it may be difficult to know which is the most influential
- it may mean treatments are more difficult to administer and comparisons are harder due to qualitative data
- this matters because the findings are less generalisable, so perhaps the holistic view is not as useful

Reductionism:

Good - Forms the basis of a Scientific Approach
- it operationalises variables to study which allows for behavioural categories, standardisation, and quantitative data to be used
- this gives it greater credibility and replicability, which can lead to reliability

Bad - Some behaviours may only be understood at a higher level
- some aspects of social behaviour only emerge in a group context, and so cannot be understood by studying individual components
- for example, conformity was only observed in a group and there is no ‘conformity gene’
- this suggests some behaviour can only be explained at the level they occur, so perhaps reductionism lacks validity as it is not useful for every behaviour/situation

Question 8

Evaluate Holism

Answer 8

Good - Provides a complete picture
- reductionism can only ever form part of an explanation as other contexts, such as social reasons, are missing
- this may mean holism has greater validity

Bad - May lack practical value
- if we take into account every experience that may affect a behaviour, it may be difficult to know which is the most influential
- it may mean treatments are more difficult to administer and comparisons are harder due to qualitative data
- this matters because the findings are less generalisable, so perhaps the holistic view is not as useful

Question 9

Evaluate Reductionism

Answer 9

Good - Forms the basis of a Scientific Approach
- it operationalises variables to study which allows for behavioural categories, standardisation, and quantitative data to be used
- this gives it greater credibility and replicability, which can lead to reliability

Bad - Some behaviours may only be understood at a higher level
- some aspects of social behaviour only emerge in a group context, and so cannot be understood by studying individual components
- for example, conformity was only observed in a group and there is no ‘conformity gene’
- this suggests some behaviour can only be explained at the level they occur, so perhaps reductionism lacks validity as it is not useful for every behaviour/situation

Question 10

Evaluate the Nomothetic vs Idiographic Debate

Answer 10

Idiographic:

Good - It contributes to the Nomothetic Approach
- In-depth, qualitative methods that provide a global description of an individual may shed light on general laws or challenge them
- A single case might generate hypotheses for further studies
- for example, patient HM’s abnormal functioning suggested the MSM of memory was incorrect, and Phineas Gage led to the Paradigm Shift from the Holistic Theory of the brain to the Localisation Theory
- This suggests that although the focus is on individuals, the idiographic approach may still form scientific laws of behaviour

Bad - The Idiographic Approach is restricted
- There is no adequate baseline to compare behaviours to, therefore generalisations cannot be made
- The idiographic approach also does not use scientific methods
- Conclusions of the qualitative data is subjective to the researcher, and so it is open to researcher bias
- This suggests it is difficult to generalise without the nomothetic approach

Nomothetic:

Good - Fits the aims of Science
- Uses standardised procedures that allow for replicability
- This means the Nomothetic Approach could raise the quality of Psychology as a Science

Bad - Loss of understanding of the individual
- The preoccupation with general laws, prediction and control means it has been accused of losing the ‘whole person’
- Simply knowing facts does not make us understand what it is like for the person affected, or what would be beneficial for them
- Understanding the subjective experiences may make it easier to find treatments
- This suggests the Nomothetic Approach may be less comprehensive than the Idiographic Approach

Question 11

Evaluate Idiographic Approach

Answer 11

Good - It contributes to the Nomothetic Approach
- In-depth, qualitative methods that provide a global description of an individual may shed light on general laws or challenge them
- A single case might generate hypotheses for further studies
- for example, patient HM’s abnormal functioning suggested the MSM of memory was incorrect, and Phineas Gage led to the Paradigm Shift from the Holistic Theory of the brain to the Localisation Theory
- This suggests that although the focus is on individuals, the idiographic approach may still form scientific laws of behaviour

Bad - The Idiographic Approach is restricted
- There is no adequate baseline to compare behaviours to, therefore generalisations cannot be made
- The idiographic approach also does not use scientific methods
- Conclusions of the qualitative data is subjective to the researcher, and so it is open to researcher bias
- This suggests it is difficult to generalise without the nomothetic approach

Question 12

Evaluate Nomothetic Approach

Answer 12

Good - Fits the aims of Science
- Uses standardised procedures that allow for replicability
- This means the Nomothetic Approach could raise the quality of Psychology as a Science

Bad - Loss of understanding of the individual
- The preoccupation with general laws, prediction and control means it has been accused of losing the ‘whole person’
- Simply knowing facts does not make us understand what it is like for the person affected, or what would be beneficial for them
- Understanding the subjective experiences may make it easier to find treatments
- This suggests the Nomothetic Approach may be less comprehensive than the Idiographic Approach

Question 13

Evaluate Ethical Implications

Answer 13

Good - Can have benefits for the groups studied
- for example, homosexuality was removed as a disorder from the DSM-5 after interviews with 5,000 men about their sexual behaviour concluded that homosexuality is a typical expression of human sexual behaviour
- this matters because it could mean there are positive implications of potentially socially sensitive research

Bad - There could be Negative Consequences for groups being studied
- criminal genes have been used as an excuse for crimes (Stephen Mobley)
- this could mean some people could be convicted on the basis they have a criminal gene, or they could be excused as they cannot be held accountable for wrongdoing
- this suggests that there is careful consideration needed of the possible outcomes of socially sensitive topics and their consequences

Good - Some sectors rely on Socially Sensitive Research
- for example, the NHS, Childcare, Crime and Education sectors all need access to socially sensitive research so they can change and update their policies to suit the needs of those groups of people
- this matters because it suggests a need for socially sensitive research for some areas, despite the ethical implications

Question 14

Evaluate Androgyny (and the BSRI)

Answer 14

Androgyny:

Bad - Lacks temporal and cultural validity
- what is seen as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ characteristics can differ depending on time era, culture, and environment
- this suggests we cannot determine if someone is androgynous as the ideal characteristics are ever changing

Good - Bem suggested Androgynous individuals are more psychologically healthy
- she suggested they are better equipped for life due to the range of characteristics as they can deal with situations that require a masculine, feminine or androgynous response
- this suggests there are positive implications of being androgynous
HOWEVER
Bad - This assumption has been challenged
- some researchers argued people who develop a greater proportion
of masculine traits are better adjusted to society as they are more highly valued in individualist cultures

BSRI/Sandra Bem:

Good - High internal validity and reliability
- it was piloted on over 1,000 students, and the results correlated well with their own description of their gender identity
- this suggests the BSRI has internal validity, and is a reliable method of assessing gender type
- in addition to this, it has high test-retest reliability as a smaller portion of this sample showed similar scores a month later
HOWEVER
Bad - Correlation does not equal Causation
- a student population may be limited as they may behave differently to a wider population, so the findings might not be representative or generalisable
- this matters because it could mean we should not draw conclusions from this suggestion

Bad - It is reliant on participants having a strong insight into their gender identity and degree of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny
- it is a self report technique with a fixed rating scale
- asking people to rate themselves relies on them having an understanding of their personality and behaviour, which is difficult as gender is a social construct with a more open interpretation than sex
- in addition to this, peoples’ interpretation of the 7 point scale might differ as it is subjective
- this suggests the BSRI might not be objective or scientific enough to measure androgyny

Good - Research support for Androgynous individuals having better Psychological states
Prakash et al
- tested 100 married females in India for masculine and feminine traits, and also tested their mental health, including anxiety and depression
- females who scored highly on female traits were more likely to score higher for depression
- females who scored highly on male traits (so were androgynous) were less likely to have depression
- this supports the positive implications of androgyny, and provides Bem’s theory with support

Question 15

Evaluate the Role of Hormones and Chromosomes in Sex and Gender

Answer 15

Good - Research support for the role of Hormones in Gender
- researchers studied transgender individuals who were undergoing hormone treatment, and were being injected with hormones of the opposite sex
- Transgender women (male -> female) showed decreases of aggression and visa-spatial skills
- Transgender men (female -> male) showed increases in aggression and visa-spatial skills
- this suggests Testosterone has a powerful and direct influence on gender development, even in adulthood

HOWEVER

Bad - Contradictory evidence on testosterone’s role in Gender
- in a double-blind placebo study of testosterone increases in healthy young men, there were no significant increase in the interactional or non-interactional sexual behaviour in participants, levels of aggression, or levels of anger
- this suggests additional testosterone may have no effect on sexual or aggressive behaviour in adults
- this matters because it could mean the role of testosterone is not as important or effective as previously thought
- despite this, it does not refute or challenge the role of testosterone in early development

Bad - The biological approach to gender is Biologically Reductionist at the Neurochemical level
- it takes the complex behaviour of gender and reduces it down to just hormones and genes
HOWEVER
Good - This may be a positive
- the biological reductionism allows us to infer cause and effect easily, as we are only looking at one variable
Overall, to reduce the risk of missing important factors that could be influential in gender, perhaps a more interactionist approach would be more useful

Bad - Social Sensitivity
- PMS is claimed to be a social construction, rather than a biological fact
- this matters because it encourages damaging stereotypes of women being irrational, simply due to their hormone levels
- this could affect how women are treated in society, and belittle their experiences and emotions
- this matters because it could suggest that the role of Hormones could have negative ethical implications for females

Question 16

Evaluate Atypical Sex Chromosome Patterns

Answer 16

Good - Practical Applications
- continued research into atypical sex chromosome patterns is likely to lead to earlier, more accurate diagnoses of Turner’s and Klinefelter’s syndromes
- research on 87 individuals with Klinefelter’s syndrome showed those who had been identified and treated at an earlier age had significant benefits compared to those who had been diagnosed in adulthood
- this suggests early diagnoses and therapeutic interventions can have a beneficial effect on physical, academic and social development
- in addition to this, research and an understanding of the syndromes can lead to treatments to be made, such as hormone replacements
- this matters because research can have positive real world applications

HOWEVER

Bad - Practical Applications are limited
- 2/3 of people are unaware they have Klinefelter’s Syndrome
- Klinefelter’s Syndrome is very difficult to spot, and only around 10% of men affected are diagnosed when treatments are most effective - in preadolescence
- this is bad because men might feel abnormal during or after puberty without a diagnosis, and they might feel like they have a self-fulfilling prophecy if they are diagnosed during puberty
- this matters because lower and late diagnoses can mean practical applications of the syndromes, such as treatments, are limited

Bad - There may be sampling issues
- in order to identify characteristics of XXY and X0 individuals, it is necessary to identify a large number of individuals with the disorder to build a database
- generally, only patients with the most severe characteristics are diagnosed, so typical characteristics might be distorted
- researchers have reported that prospective, longitudinal studies have produced a more accurate picture of the characteristics
- this suggests the typical picture of the syndromes may have been exaggerated, which matters because it might distort out understanding, therefore distorting treatments and methods of diagnosis

Question 17

Evaluate Kohlberg’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory of Gender

Answer 17

Good - Research Support for gender stereotyping emerging around age 6
- a researcher told children a story about a boy called George who liked to play with dolls
- they were asked to comment on the story
- 4 year olds said it was fine if George wanted to play with dolls
- 6 year olds said it was wrong for George to play with dolls
- this showed how children aged 6 had gone beyond understanding what boys and girls do, and they were developing rules about what they ought to do - gender stereotyping
- this supports Kohlberg’s theory by suggesting children around age 6 achieve constancy and have formed rigid stereotypes regarding gender-appropriate behaviour

Good - Research support for Gender Stability
- researchers used a flip book to show children ‘muddled’ pictures where hairstyles and clothes of male and female characters could be changed
- the children were then asked what gender they thought the character was
- younger children believed changing clothes changed a person’s sex
- older children understood the gender was constant, and that outward changes do not influence whether someone was male or female
- this supports Kohlberg’s theory as it demonstrates the changes in thinking between younger and older children

Bad - Research contradicting Kohlberg
Bussey and Bandura
- children as young as 4 reported ‘feeling good’ about playing with gender appropriate toys and ‘feeling bad’ about playing with opposite gender toys
- this contradicts Kohlberg’s concept that children only start seeking out gender role models and understanding sex role stereotypes during the constancy stage at age 6

Bad - Methodological Issues
- Kohlberg interviewed children as young as 2 or 3
- he tailored the questions to the age group, but he might not have acknowledged that the very young children lack the vocabulary to express their answers of their understanding of gender
- this matters because it may mean they represented what they could vocalise, rather than their true understanding
- this could mean there are confounding variables in the study which lower the internal validity of the information Kohlberg’s theory was based on

Question 18

Evaluate Martin and Halverson’s Gender Schema Theory

Answer 18

Good - Martin and Halverson conducted research that supports it
- they showed children age 6 photographs of stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour (such as a girl playing with a doll) than photographs of gender-inappropriate behaviour (such as a girl playing with a car)
- they found when they asked them to recall the images 1 week later, the children were more likely to recall gender-appropriate photographs
- the children often also misremembered the photographs and reported their expected gender (e.g. reported a boy playing with the car) so that the behaviour was now appropriate
- this supports the gender schema theory as it predicts children under the age of 6 would do this
- this matters because it increases the validity of Gender Schema Theory

Good - Research support for greater attention to the in-group
- 4-9 year olds were told certain items were for boys or girls, when they were actually gender neutral (for example, burglar alarms and pizza cutters)
- the children were seen to be more interested in items they were told were for their gender (the in-group)
- the children also remembered more details about the in-group items when asked a week later
- this matters because it supports the idea of a desire to fit gender stereotypes, and also supports the idea that children pay more attention to their in-group

Bad - The theory could overemphasise the role of the individual in gender development
- it is a cognitive theory, and so it does not pay enough attention to the role of social factors such as parental influences and surrounding culture, such as school or the media
- it ignores the role of reward and punishment, which shape behaviour as they are likely to encourage gender-stereotyped behaviour more
- this matters because it emphasises HOW schemas and stereotypes develop, but not WHY they develop or take the form they do
- it could also suggest it is a limited explanation as it ignores how reinforcements on behaviour could affect which schemas are taken on where in the world
- this is supported by cultural differences in gender schemas and stereotypes, as this shows how schema can be different - likely due to adult reinforcement and not cognition (if it were cognition it would be the same everywhere)

Question 19

Evaluate Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Gender Development

Answer 19

Good - Support for the role of the Oedipus Complex in Gender Development
- Freud suggests ‘normal’ development depends on being based by at least one male parent
- the gender identity of 49 boys aged 3-11 years were rated based on interviews with them and their families
- 75% of the boys judged to be ‘gender disturbed’ had neither a biological father or a father substitute living with them
- this suggests being raised with no father may have a negative impact on gender identity
- this matters because it supports Freud’s suggested importance of the Oedipus Complex and identification in Gender Development
HOWEVER
Bad - Methodological issues
- he interviewed young children about their unconscious
- this could mean the support for his theory is flawed, so cannot be used

Bad - Lack of evidence for some concepts
- there is no evidence of Castration Anxiety
- there is no evidence of Penis Envy
- research even contradicts some elements of Freud’s theory as it found boys with warm and supporting fathers identify better than those with overbearing and threatening fathers
- this suggests Freud’s concept of fear driving gender development is not true

Bad - Inadequate account of female development
- Freud admitted women were a mystery to him
- much of the work theorising the female gender development was conducted by his partner Carl Jung
- Penis Envy has been criticised for reflecting the patriarchal and repressive Victorian Society in which Freud lived as it bases female development off the desire to be male
- this matters as Freud made androcentric assumptions based off of the cultural, temporal context he was in with no proper understanding
- this suggests his theory is sexist and not applicable in today’s society, as well as lacking validity and evidence

Question 20

Evaluate Social Learning Theory as an Explanation of Gender

Answer 20

Good - Supporting Evidence
- 4-6month old babies were dressed half the time in boys’ clothes and half the time in girls’ clothes irrespective of their gender
- adults were observed interacting with the children wearing the different gendered clothes
- the ‘boys’ were given ‘boy-appropriate’ toys and were encouraged to be active and adventurous
- the ‘girls’ were given ‘girl-appropriate’ toys and were told they were pretty, and were reinforced for being passive
- this suggests that gender appropriate behaviour is stamped in at an early age by surrounding adults through differential reinforcement
- this supports SLT

Good - It explains changing gender roles in Western Society
- there has been a shift in social expectations and cultural norms over the years, which has meant new forms of acceptable gender behaviour have been reinforced
- this supports SLT because it accounts for these changes in society by suggesting acceptable behaviour for the cultural and temporal norms are reinforced by other people in that society
- this suggests SLT has the best validity and real world support

Bad - There is case study contradiction
- David Reimer (Bruce/Brenda/David) showed that it was not possible to override his biological sex and gender, despite being raised by a girl and being reinforced for female behaviours
- SLT does not account for biological influences, which matters because it could lack validity as it is not comprehensive
- this could suggest we should take a biosocial approach so that it acknowledges how innate biology can be affected by reinforcement

Question 21

Evaluate the influence of Culture on Gender Roles

Answer 21

Good - There is research support for the influence of culture on changing gender roles
- research argues that in industrialised cultures, the changing status and expectations of women are a function of their increasingly active role in the workplace and away from the domestic sphere
- this has led to a breakdown of traditional stereotypes in advanced industrialised societies
- in traditional societies, women still occupy the role of house-maker as a result of social, cultural, and religious pressures
- this matters because it suggests that gender roles are determined by cultural context

Bad - Mead’s cross-cultural research has been criticised
- Mead has been criticised and accused of making generalisations based on a short period of study
- a follow-up study on people in Papua New Guinea suggested Mead’s findings are flawed and that she had been misled by some of her participants
- She had preconceptions of what she would find due to her becoming too involved with the tribe, which may have influenced her reading of events
- this suggests there was observer bias, and possibly an element of ethnocentrism
- this matters because it may mean her observations were not objective, and so her conclusions can be questioned

Question 22

Evaluate the Influence of the Media on Gender Roles

Answer 22

Good - It has a theoretical basis
- the cultivation theory argues that the more time individuals spend ‘living’ in the media world, the more likely they are to believe this reflects social reality
- researchers found a positive correlation between the time spend watching the reality show Jersey Shore, and the permissive attitudes towards casual sex
- this effect was still found when researchers controlled for the influence of factors such as existing sexual attitudes, parental attitudes and religious beliefs
- this suggests the media ‘cultivates’ the perception of reality, and this affects gender behaviour

Bad - There may not be a causal relationship between gender roles and the media
- researchers argue that even very young children are not passive and uncritical recipients of media messages
- norms within a child’s family may be the bigger determinant on the child’s gender attitudes and behaviour
- if media representations confirm existing gender norms held by the family, then these are likely to be reinforced in the child’s mind
- if not, such representations are likely to be rejected
- this matters because it suggests that media influences are secondary to other influences such as family

Question 23

Evaluate Biological Explanations for Gender Dysphoria

Answer 23

Good - Evidence suggests there may be other brain differences associated with GD
- researchers studied another sexually dimorphic aspect of the brain where levels of white matter varies depending on sex/gender
- they researched the proportional differences of white matter in the male and female brains of transgender individuals before they began hormone treatment as part of gender reassignment
- in most cases, the amount and distribution of white matter corresponded more closely to the gender the individuals identified as rather than their biological sex
- this suggests early, pre-existing differences in transgenders’ brains

Bad - Contradictory evidence
- Brain Sex Theory has been challenged
- researchers studied changes in transgender individuals’ brains using MRI scans which were taken during hormone treatment
- the scans showed that the size of the BST changed significantly during that time
- Krujiver examined the BST post-mortem, after the transgender individuals had received hormone treatment during gender reassignment treatment
- this suggests the differences in the BST might have been an effect of hormone treatment, rather than the cause of the Gender Dysphoria

Bad - The research could be Socially Sensitive
- for some people it might be a relief to believe it is from biology as they may place less blame on themselves for feeling different
- for others, a label may be disliked as they can lead to stigmas or unfair stereotypes
- this could mean the research has an element of social sensitivity

Question 24

Evaluate Social-Psychological Explanations for Gender Dysphoria

Answer 24

Good - The Social Constructionism approach allows for cultures that have more than 2 genders
- some people in Samoa are biological males but adopt the gender role of women
- this is a challenge to traditional binary classifications of female and male
- the growing number of people who describe themselves as ‘non-binary’ suggests that cultural understanding is only now catching up with the lived experience of many
- this suggests Gender Identity and Gender Dysphoria is best seen as a social construction rather than a biological fact

Bad - There are issues with the Psychoanalytic Theory of Gender Dysphoria
- Ovesey and Person’s explanation does not provide an adequate account of GD in biological females, as their theory only applies to transgender women
- research found that GD in those assigned male at birth is more likely to be associated with the absence of a father than the fear of separation from the mother
- this suggests the psychoanalytic theory does not provide a comprehensive account of Gender Dysphoria

Question 25

Evaluate the Classification and Diagnosis of Sz

Answer 25

Bad - Low criterion validity
Chiniaux et al
- asked 2 psychologists to independently diagnose 100 patients using DSM and ICD
- one diagnosed 26 using DSM, and 44 using ICD
- one diagnosed 13 with DSM, and 24 with ICD
- This suggests Sz is either over or under diagnosed, according to the diagnostic system, so criterion validity is low
- It is easier to see 2 negative symptoms than 1 positive symptom, so it is easier to get a diagnosis with ICD than with DSM
- the lack of criterion validity might mean over or under diagnosis
- This matters because you are more likely to be diagnosed in Europe, suggesting some people might not be diagnosed when they need treatment, while others might be diagnosed and receive treatment they do not need

Bad - Low reliability
Chiniaux et al
- two researchers arrived at different results despite using the same classification system
- suggests the systems are not standardised, and there is no inter-rater reliability
- could mean some people are over or under diagnosed

Bad - Symptom Overlap
- There is a considerable overlap between symptoms of Sz and symptoms of other conditions, such as bipolar disorder
- Bipolar disorder also includes positive symptoms and negative symptoms
- In terms of classification, this could suggest they might be two variants of a single condition, rather than separate
- This could mean difficulty to distinguish and treat the two
- This matters because it may mean Sz does not exist as a distinct condition, and is hard to diagnose, so both classification and diagnosis is flawed

Bad - Co-morbidity
- If co-morbidity occurs a lot of the time, it questions the validity of diagnosis and classification as it might be a single condition
- People with Sz are often diagnosed with depression as well
- This could mean Sz does not exist as a single condition, which could mean the classification is flawed

Bad - Gender Bias
- More men are diagnosed than women
- This could be suggested by men being more vulnerable from genetics, but it is likely due to females having closer relationships, meaning they can get support
- This under-diagnosis could mean women are not receiving the treatment they need

Bad - Culture Bias
- Some symptoms (especially auditory hallucinations) have different meanings in different cultures e.g. communications with ancestors
- British people of African-Carribean origin are up to 9 times as likely to receive a diagnosis as British People
- Could suggest discrimination by a culturally-biased diagnostic system

Question 26

Evaluate Biological Explanations of Schizophrenia

Answer 26

Good - research support for Genetic Vulnerability
Gottesman:
- 2% aunt, 9% sibling, 48% MZ twin
Tienari:
- Suggested children of people with Sz are at heightened risk even when adopted by families with no history of Sz

• suggests genes must be involved

Bad - must be environmental factors
Gottesman:
- only 48% concordance rate - should be 100%
- research has suggested environmental factors can increase the likelihood of Sz:
Childhood trauma (people are vulnerable to adult mental health issues)
Smoking THC-rich cannabis in teenage years

Good - research support for abnormal dopamine functioning in people with Sz (original Dopamine hypothesis)
Curran:
- dopamine antagonists (amphetamines) increase Dopamine
- high DA levels can make Sz symptoms worse, supporting high levels of DA
Lindstroem:
- chemicals needed to reduce DA are taken up faster in the brains of Sz sufferers, suggesting they produce more

Question 27

Evaluate Chlorpromazine

Answer 27

Good:
- Syrup absorbs quickly, so it can be used as a sedative

Bad:
- Takes a while to work (it initially increases dopamine levels)
- May produce side-effects like depression, so it could lead to a co-morbidity where anti-depressants are needed as well

Question 28

Evaluate Clozapine

Answer 28

Good:
- Improves mood as well as regulating symptoms
- Can be used when other treatments fail

Bad:
- Severe side-effects, such as death and Tardive Dyskinesia

Question 29

Evaluate Risperidone

Answer 29

Good:
- Same effects as Clozapine but without side effects
- Fewer side effects
- Injections can last 2 weeks

Bad:
- Can have negative side effects

Question 30

Evaluate the Biological Treatment of Schizophrenia

Answer 30

Good - evidence to support effectiveness
Typical:
- research compared effects of Chlorpromazine to control conditions with placebos
- used data from 113 trials with 1,121 participants
- found Chlorpromazine was associated with better overall functioning and reduced symptoms
Atypical:
- research found Clozapine is more effective than typical and other atypical antipsychotics
- it is effective in 30-50% of treatment-resistant cases where other antipsychotics have failed
- suggests they work

Bad - Likelihood of side effects
Typical:
- dizziness
- weight gain
- sleepiness
- jaw stiffness
- agitation
- itchy skin
Long-term use can lead to Tardive Dyskinesia
Atypical:
Clozapine can cause death
- suggests the treatment is harmful
- this could mean patients avoid this treatment, rendering them ineffective

Bad - Mechanism Unclear
- We do not understand why they work
- Our understanding comes from the Dopamine Hypothesis, but this is not a complete understanding of Sz as the new Dopamine Hypothesis suggests some DA levels are too low
- If this was the case, antipsychotics should not work
- This matters because it could mean the foundation on which the understanding of antipsychotics are based lacks validity, and so they might not be the best treatment option if we are unsure of how they work

Question 31

Evaluate Psychological Explanations for Schizophrenia

Answer 31

Family Dysfunction:

Good - Research support
Read
- indicators of family dysfunction include insecure attachment and exposure to childhood trauma such as abuse
- Read reviewed adults with Sz and found they are disproportionately likely to have insecure attachment (especially type C and D)
- Reported that 69% of women and 59% of men with Sz have a history of physical and/or sexy abuse
- suggests family dysfunction makes people more vulnerable to Sz

Bad - Explanations lack support
- although there is support for childhood family-based stress associating with adulthood Sz, there is almost no support for traditional theories such as Schizophrenogenic mother and Double Bind theory
- this suggests family explanations have not been able to account for the link between childhood trauma and Sz

Bad - Socially sensitive
- could blame the parents/carers
- particularly blames the mother

Cognitive Explanations:

Good - Research Support
Stirling
- compared performance on cognitive tasks in 30 people with Sz and a control group of 30 people without Sz
- tasks included the Stroop task, where they had to name the font-colours of colour-words, so they had to suppress the tendency to read the words aloud
- as predicted by Frith, people with Sz took longer (twice as long on average) to name the font colours
- supports the idea of cognitive impairment in Sz

Bad - Artificial tasks
- low mundane realism

Bad - Proximal Explanation
- they only explain what is happening now to produce symptoms, rather than what initially caused Sz
- could suggest the cognitive explanation is only a partial explanation for Sz as it limits our understanding

Bad - Confusion over basis of Sz
- cognitive explanation focuses more on Biological origins, and suggests it is a biological condition rather than a psychological condition
- suggests there is question over what type of condition Sz is, which could hinder our understanding and ability to provide treatments

Question 32

Evaluate Family Dysfunction as a Psychological Explanation for Schizophrenia

Answer 32

Good - Research support
Read
- indicators of family dysfunction include insecure attachment and exposure to childhood trauma such as abuse
- Read reviewed adults with Sz and found they are disproportionately likely to have insecure attachment (especially type C and D)
- Reported that 69% of women and 59% of men with Sz have a history of physical and/or sexy abuse
- suggests family dysfunction makes people more vulnerable to Sz

Bad - Explanations lack support
- although there is support for childhood family-based stress associating with adulthood Sz, there is almost no support for traditional theories such as Schizophrenogenic mother and Double Bind theory
- this suggests family explanations have not been able to account for the link between childhood trauma and Sz

Bad - Socially sensitive
- could blame the parents/carers
- particularly blames the mother

Question 33

Evaluate Cognitive Explanations as Psychological Explanations for Schizophrenia

Answer 33

Good - Research Support
Stirling
- compared performance on cognitive tasks in 30 people with Sz and a control group of 30 people without Sz
- tasks included the Stroop task, where they had to name the font-colours of colour-words, so they had to suppress the tendency to read the words aloud
- as predicted by Frith, people with Sz took longer (twice as long on average) to name the font colours
- supports the idea of cognitive impairment in Sz

Bad - Artificial tasks
- low mundane realism

Bad - Proximal Explanation
- they only explain what is happening now to produce symptoms, rather than what initially caused Sz
- could suggest the cognitive explanation is only a partial explanation for Sz as it limits our understanding

Bad - Confusion over basis of Sz
- cognitive explanation focuses more on Biological origins, and suggests it is a biological condition rather than a psychological condition
- suggests there is question over what type of condition Sz is, which could hinder our understanding and ability to provide treatments

Question 34

Evaluate Psychological Treatments of Schizophrenia

Answer 34

CBT:

Good - Evidence for effectiveness
Jauhar et al
- reviewed 34 studies using CBT with Sz and concluded there is clear evidence for small but significant effects on positive and negative symptoms
HOWEVER
Bad - Significance was only slight
- there is an argument that patients with Sz are likely unfit to participate effectively in CBT

Bad - Question of Cure?
- CBT improves quality of life for people with Sz, but it does not actually cure them
- Sz appears to be largely biological, so we would expect a psychological treatment to only improve their ability to live with Sz
- however, studies report significant reduction in severity of positive and negative symptoms, so this suggests it does more than just enhance coping

Family Therapy:

Good - Evidence of Effectiveness
Pharaoh et al
- reviewed family therapy and found moderate evidence for reduced hospital readmission
- this suggests family therapy improves the quality of life for patients and family

Bad - Inconsistent Findings
Pharaoh et al
- found results of different studies were inconsistent, and there were problems with some of the quality of the studies
- this suggests evidence for family therapy is fairly limited

Good - Benefits all family members
- therapy is beneficial for the identified patient and the families that provide the bulk of the care
- a review of evidence concluded these effects are important as families provide the bulk of the care
- by strengthening the functioning of a whole family, family therapy lessens the negative impact of Sz on other family members and strengthens the ability for the family to support the member with Sz
- this suggests family therapy has wider benefits beyond the obvious positive impact on the identified patient

Question 35

Evaluate CBT as a Psychological Treatment of Schizophrenia

Answer 35

Good - Evidence for effectiveness
Jauhar et al
- reviewed 34 studies using CBT with Sz and concluded there is clear evidence for small but significant effects on positive and negative symptoms
HOWEVER
Bad - Significance was only slight
- there is an argument that patients with Sz are likely unfit to participate effectively in CBT

Bad - Question of Cure?
- CBT improves quality of life for people with Sz, but it does not actually cure them
- Sz appears to be largely biological, so we would expect a psychological treatment to only improve their ability to live with Sz
- however, studies report significant reduction in severity of positive and negative symptoms, so this suggests it does more than just enhance coping

Question 36

Evaluate Family Therapy as a Psychological Treatment of Schizophrenia

Answer 36

Good - Evidence of Effectiveness
Pharaoh et al
- reviewed family therapy and found moderate evidence for reduced hospital readmission
- this suggests family therapy improves the quality of life for patients and family

Bad - Inconsistent Findings
Pharaoh et al
- found results of different studies were inconsistent, and there were problems with some of the quality of the studies
- this suggests evidence for family therapy is fairly limited

Good - Benefits all family members
- therapy is beneficial for the identified patient and the families that provide the bulk of the care
- a review of evidence concluded these effects are important as families provide the bulk of the care
- by strengthening the functioning of a whole family, family therapy lessens the negative impact of Sz on other family members and strengthens the ability for the family to support the member with Sz
- this suggests family therapy has wider benefits beyond the obvious positive impact on the identified patient

Question 37

Evaluate Token Economies as Management/Treatment for Schizophrenia

Answer 37

Bad - Ethical Issues
- it gives professionals significant power and control over the behaviour of the patients
- it imposes their norms and target behaviours onto others, which could be a problem if they are not identified sensitively
- restricting the availability of pleasures who don’t behave might mean that seriously ill and distressed people have a worse time
- there has been legal action from many families who see their relative in token economies, meaning there has been a decline in them
- this suggests the benefits of token economies might be outweighed by their impact on personal freedom and reduced quality of life

Bad - More Pleasant and Ethical Alternatives Exist
- token economies might be helpful for managing Sz, but there are other approaches that do not raise the same ethical issues
- a review suggested art therapy might be a good alternative
- although there is a small evidence base, it appears to show art therapy is a high-gain, low-risk approach to managing Sz
- it is a pleasant experience with no major risks of side effects or ethical abuses
- this suggests it might be a good alternative to token economies

Bad - Does not reflect the Real World
- they are difficult to continue once outside a hospital setting as target behaviours cannot be monitored as closely and tokens cannot be administered immediately
- the system of token economies does not reflect the real world, so it could be argued it does not prepare the patient for the real world
- this questions the value of token economies to manage behaviour of Sz

Question 38

Evaluate the Interactionist Approach for Schizophrenia

Answer 38

Good - Evidence for the role of Vulnerability and Triggers
Tienari et al
- investigated the combination of genetic vulnerability and parenting style in adopted children from 19,000 Finnish Mothers who had been diagnosed with Sz
- compared them to a control group of adoptees without a family history of Sz
- adoptive mothers had been assessed for child-rearing style, and they found the condition with Sz mothers had high levels of criticism, hostility, and low levels of empathy, and this was associated with development of Sz in the high risk group
- this suggests a combination of genetic vulnerability and family stress can lead to risk of Sz

Bad - The Original Diathesis Stress model is over-simplistic
- the idea of one single schizogeny and a schizophrenic parenting style is over-simplistic
- it is now believed vulnerability can be caused by early trauma as well as genetic make-up, and stress can come in many forms
- multiple genes increase vulnerability as Sz is polygenic
- stress can come in multiple forms, it is not just dysfunctional parenting
- it has been shown childhood sexual trauma is a diathesis, and cannabis can be a trigger
- this suggests the idea of a biological diathesis and psychological stress is over simple, suggesting the original diathesis-stress model lacks validity

Good - Real world support
- more people are diagnosed with Sz in urban areas rather than rural areas
- this justifies the interactionist approach as it assumes urban living is more stressful, so it acts as a trigger
HOWEVER
- it could just mean people who suffered abuse (have a diathesis) migrate to cities to get away, and are more likely to be diagnosed there
- this could mean there is a question of if there is support for the interactionist approach of Sz

Question 39

Evaluate the Top Down Approach of Criminal Profiling

Answer 39

Good - Top down profiling can be adapted to other kinds of crime such as burglary
- Critics claimed the approach only worked for extreme or serial crimes such as rape or murder
- However, reports have shown it has been applied to burglary and has had an 85% rise in solved cases in 3 US States
- It adds 2 new categories to organised and disorganised: Interpersonal (criminal knows the person and steals a valuable item)
Opportunistic (young, inexperienced offenders)
- This suggests a wider application

Bad - Based on Flawed evidence
- FBI profiling was created based on 36 interviews with serial killers and murderers
- Canter et al argued it was a small sample size that was not randomly selected and did not include different types of crimes
- The interviews were unstructured, so there was no standardised or comparable procedure
- This could mean the top down approach is not scientific so lacks validity

Bad - It may be difficult to classify a crime as only one
- There are a variety of combinations of organised and disorganised, and killers might have contrasting characteristics such as high intelligence but leaves the body at the scene
- This suggests organised/disorganised classification is more likely to be a continuum

Question 40

Evaluate the Bottom-Up approach to Offender Profiling

Answer 40

Good - Investigative Psychology has research support
- 66 Sexual Assault cases were examined using smallest space analysis
- Several behaviours were identified as common in different samples of behaviour, such as impersonal language and lack of reaction to the victim
- Each individual displayed a characteristic pattern of these behaviours which can help establish whether offences were committed by the same person
- This supports investigative psychology by demonstrating people are consistent in their behaviour

Bad - Case linkage depends on the database
- The database only includes cases that have been reported and then solved
- The recorded crimes may have only been solved as they were straightforward to link together in the first place, so it may be a circular argument
- This suggests investigative psychology may only work if there are similarities or links to past solved crimes, and if not, they will remain unsolved
- This could mean criminals are still a threat to society

Good - There is evidence support for geographical profiling
- Information was gathered from 120 murder cases involving serial killers in the US
- Smallest space analysis revealed spatial consistency in the behaviour of the killers
- The location of each body disposal site created a ‘centre of gravity’ as they aimed to travel to a different side of their residency each time to avoid 2 bodies near each other
- This helps to catch killers and reduces the area of suspects

Question 41

Evaluate the Atavistic Form as a Biological Explanation of Offending Behaviour

Answer 41

Good - Contributions to Criminology
- Lombroso is called the ‘father of criminology’
- He shifted the emphasis of crime from moralistic to scientific to reduce bias
- His descriptions of criminals helped to establish Offender Profiling

Bad - Scientific Racism
- His work has racist undertones
- Many atavistic characteristics describe people with African descent - curly hair, dark skin
- His research fitted 19th century eugenic attitudes, suggesting a subjective view influenced by racist attitudes

Bad - Flawed methodology
- Lack of control as he did not use a control group
- There could be confounding variables which explain why crime rates are higher in certain societies
- e.g. crime is associated with poverty and low social class, and this could explain why he identified unemployment as one of the characteristics
- Suggests his work is not as scientific as it should have been

Bad - Causation is an issue
- Research contradicts the link between atavism and crimes
- Researchers compared 3000 offenders and 3000 non-offenders to find anything physically atypical
- They did not find distinct unusual facial or cranial features of offenders, they only suggested criminals have a lower IQ/Intelligence
- This challenges Lombroso’s suggestion of a subspecies

Question 42

Evaluate Genetic Explanations of Offending Behaviour

Answer 42

Good - Strong support for the Nature side of the Nature/Nurture debate
- Research into family and twin studies has suggested a genetic basis for behaviour which has implications for our understanding of offending behaviour
HOWEVER
- Supporters of the nurture side of the debate argue that ignoring the influence of important external factors such as parenting, culture and social learning means it could be considered reductionist
- It ignores crucial elements of explaining offending behaviour and only accounts for genes and biological influences
- This suggests it is a limited argument

Bad - Methodological issues with adoption studies
- Many children experience late adoption so are with their biological parents for a long time before adoption
- Lots of adoptees also maintain contact with their biological parents
- This makes it difficult to isolate and assess environmental impacts due to the influence biological parents might have had

Bad - Could be Biologically Deterministic
- The notion of a criminal gene presents a dilemma
- The legal system is based on the premise that criminals have personal, moral responsibility for their crimes, and they can only claim they were not acting on their own free will in extreme cases
- This raises an ethical question about what society does with people who are suspected of carrying criminal genes
- This could mean the concept could be socially sensitive, or it could mean that some criminals use it as an excuse for their actions: Stephen Mobley

Question 43

Evaluate Eysenck’s Theory of Criminal Personality

ALL BAD

Answer 43

Bad - Inconsistent findings
- Eysenck conducted a study on a large group of male offenders, and found consistently high scores for Psychoticism and Neuroticism, but not Extraversion
- In addition to this, another researcher conducted a review of 16 studies into EPT, and the links to criminality in young offenders
- They found consistently high levels of Psychoticism and Neuroticism, but again, not high levels of Extraversion
- This matters because it contradicts Eysenck’s theory, and casts doubt on its basis

Bad - Culturally Biased
- Researchers studied Hispanic and African American offenders in a New York maximum security prison
- They divided them into 6 groups based on their criminal history and offence
- All 6 were found to be less extraverted than a control group of non-criminals
- This was supposedly because the sample was of a different cultural group than was investigated by Eysenck
- This matters because it questions the validity and generalisability of the criminal personality and Eysenck’s theory

Bad - There is an unclear relationship between every trait of the criminal personality and offending behaviour (Extraversion)
- Extraversion is not consistently found to relate to criminality, suggesting another factor may be involved
- It could be that the type of crime is a more reliable predictor of whether someone is an extravert or not
- For example, criminals who happen to be extraverted may commit crimes that raise adrenaline levels as they seek environmental stimulation. This could include joy riding or physical assault
- This is important because it may be that extraversion does not cause criminality, but it acts as an indicator for certain crimes

Question 44

Evaluate Level of Moral Reasoning as a Cognitive Explanation of Offending Behaviour

Answer 44

Good - Research Support
- researchers used a scale of 11 moral dilemma related questions on offenders and non-offenders
- they found offenders showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-offenders
- researchers also found offenders who committed crimes that required planning (burglaries) were more likely to be in a pre-conventional level of morality than those who committed crimes such as assault
- this supports moral reasoning as an explanation of offending behaviour

Bad - Kohlberg’s theory has been criticised for being Androcentric
- he used an all-male sample in his original study of moral dilemmas
- this suggests his concept of moral development is androcentric, and so is not generalisable to women
- researchers argue male views of morality are more likely to be pragmatic, while female views of morality are more likely to be compassionate and caring
- this suggests further research is needed on female participants to increase generalisability

Bad - Kohlberg’s use of the Heinz Dilemma has been criticised
- researchers argued the scenario lacks validity as Kohlberg interviewed children who had no experience being married, and no idea of what it would be like to have to make that decision
- this could mean there is no way of assessing their moral reasoning of the situation from their own perspectives
- this could matter because it may have limited the children in Kohlberg’s original samples’s ability to show level 3 reasoning as the hypothetical situation had no real consequences to them
- this suggests further research needs to be done with dilemmas that are relevant and understandable by the sample, so validity can be increased

Question 45

Evaluate Cognitive Distortions as a Cognitive Explanation of Offending Behaviour

Answer 45

Good - Practical application
- understanding cognitive distortions can help us treat criminal behaviour
- CBT helps offenders ‘face up’ to their behaviour with a less distorted view of their actions
- research suggested reducing denial and minimisation in therapy is correlated with reducing recidivism
- acceptance is also one of the key features of rehabilitation
- this is supported by evidence of effectiveness for rehabilitation
- this matters because it suggests it has a good real world application

Bad - It doesn’t explain why offending behaviour occurs in the first place
- cognitive biases are useful in explaining the thought processes criminals go through after a crime has been committed
- for example, minimalisation explains how the criminals might deal with their feelings of guilt, but it doesn’t explain why they committed the crime
- this is important because it questions the usefulness of cognitive biases as an explanation for offending behaviour

Question 46

Evaluate Differential Association Theory as a Psychological Explanation of Offending Behaviour

Answer 46

Good - Good contribution to Criminology
- Sutherland moved the emphasis away from early biological accounts of crime, such as Lombroso’s Atavistic Theory
- Differential Association Theory draws attention to the fact that dysfunctional social circumstances or environments may be more to blame than dysfunctional people
- this matters because it suggests DAT offers a more realistic explanation and solution to the problem of crime

Bad - It cannot explain all crimes
- it cannot explain impulsive crimes
- DAT assumes people build up to committing crimes through a process of making favourable associations towards criminality
- it does not explain impulsive crimes where a person has no forethought or plan
- their behaviour will likely not support Sutherland’s pattern
- this matters because it suggests the theory is incomplete

Bad - Difficulty Measuring
- Sutherland suggested we can predict offending behaviour by looking at differential associations
- however, many of the concepts cannot be tested or measured because they cannot be operationalised
- for example, it is hard to see the number of pro-crime attitudes a person has or has been exposed to
- this suggests we cannot know at what point the urge to offend is realised or offending is triggered
- this suggests the theory does not have scientific credibility

Bad - Deterministic
- it is environmentally deterministic
- it suggests exposure to pro-criminal values is enough to produce offending
- it therefore ignores people have free will
- this matters because it suggests it is not a comprehensive enough explanation for offending

Question 47

Evaluate Psychodynamic Explanations of Offending

Answer 47

Bad - Gender Bias
- the psychodynamic theory assumes girls develop a weaker superego than boys as they do not experience castration anxiety so have less need to identify with their mothers
- this should mean females are more prone to criminal behaviour, but this is not supported by evidence from prison populations
- this matters because it highlights a serious flaw in the psychodynamic explanations of offending behaviour and suggests they are gender bias

Bad - Unfalsifiable
- it includes the superego, which is an abstract, unconscious Freudian concept
- this means it is not subject to empirical testing
- without evidence, the explanations cannot be scientifically tested and so they have to be judged on their face value
- this matters because psychodynamic explanations are regarded as pseudoscientific, and this could mean they contribute little to our understanding of crime

Bad - Maternal Deprivation Theory is based on flawed methodology
- Bowbly’s 44 thieves study might have been subject to researcher bias
- Bowlby conducted the interviews himself, and so he may have had unconscious or conscious preconceptions of which teenagers should display signs of affectionless psychopathy based on which teenagers he knew experienced maternal deprivation
- this matters because it could mean his research has low internal validity, which suggests it may lack validity or generalisability as an explanation of offending behaviour

Question 48

Evaluate Custodial Sentencing for Dealing with Offending Behaviour

Answer 48

Good - It provides an opportunity for training and treatment
- the rehabilitation model argues prisoners should be able to become better people during their time in prison
- they should be less likely to reoffend and better equipped to society
- research found prisoners who do a prison college programme are 43% less likely to reoffend once released
- this suggests prison may be a worthwhile experience
HOWEVER
Bad - Not all prisoners are given access to rehabilitation opportunities
- prisons may have a lack of funding to provide useful resources for prisoners to better themselves and their skills
- the success of custodial sentencing may be dependent on education and training facilities within the prison system
- this matters because it could mean prison may only be worthwhile for those with good resources, and some prisoners are not given the chance for rehabilitation

Bad - It has negative psychological effects
- researchers have suggested prison can be brutal and devastating
- suicide rates of offenders are around 9 times higher than the general population
- the Prison Reform Trust found 25% of women and 15% of men reported symptoms of psychosis during their time in prison
- this matters because it suggests oppressive prison regimes can be detrimental to psychological health, which could affect rehabilitation

Bad - People may learn to be better offenders when in Custodial Sentences
- prison can give younger inmates the opportunity to spend time with older, hardened criminals who may teach them the tricks of the trade
- they may also form new criminal networks which they may follow up on once they are released
- this is supported by the Differential Association Theory as it suggests criminals learn the attitudes and acts of crime from others
- it is also supported by Social Learning Theory as older prisoners may act as role models for younger prisoners, which might motivate them to imitate their behaviour
- this matters because it might undermine attempts to rehabilitate prisoners, and it may actually increase the rate of recidivism

Question 49

Evaluate Behaviour Modification in Custody

Answer 49

Good - Relatively straightforward to set up in custody
- behaviour modification can be administered relatively easy as there is no need for any professional involvement or help
- token economies can be designed and implemented by anyone in the institution
- although training is required, it would be no where near the training or cost of a professional
- this suggests it is also easy to follow up and is cost-effective, so can be established in most institutions and accessed by most prisoners
- this matters because it suggests it has positive implications for the economy

Bad - It may not affect long-term behaviour
- it could have little rehabilitative value
- positive behaviour changes prisoners make hardly ever transfer outside of prison
- more cognitive treatments such as anger management may lead to more permanent behavioural change as the prisoners have to understand the cause of their offending and take responsibility for their own rehabilitation
- offenders can easily just ‘play along’ with token economies to access tokens for rewards, but they might not actually change their character
- this is supported by the fact that once a token economy is discontinued, offenders often quickly regress back to their former behaviour
- this matters because it may explain why recidivism happens once token economies are not in the real world
- this could suggest an interactionist approach using token economies and anger management may be more successful

Bad - They are seen to breach basic human rights as they are dehumanising and can be seen as unethical
- some have argued that some of the supposed rewards for good behaviour in a token economy programme should be seen as a right and not a reward given in response to a desired behaviour
- this is important because it has implications for how effective treatment programmes are, particularly if offenders share this notion and become sceptical of token economies as a treatment programme
- in addition to this, participation is often obligatory rather than optional
- this questions the morality and fairness of using token economy systems
- this matters because it suggests that token economies asa behaviour modification could be seen as unethical from a prisoner’s perspective

Question 50

Evaluate Anger Management as a way to Deal with Offending Behaviour

Answer 50

Good - The benefits might outlast those of behaviour modification
- Anger Management might be more permanent than behaviour modification
- Anger Management tries to get to the cause of the offending by looking at cognitive processes which trigger anxiety and lead to offending, whereas behaviour modification only deals with surface behaviour
- Anger Management can give offenders an insight into the causes of their criminality through role play, and it may lead to them self-discovering ways of managing themselves outside of the prison
- this suggests anger management is more likely to lead to permanent behavioural change, and so it is likely a better way of dealing with offending behaviour than behavioural modification

Bad - Success may depend on individual factors
- researchers looked at Australian offenders in 2 groups: anger management group and a control group with no treatment
- they found the anger management had little impact for many, but this was not true for all offenders in the anger management programme
- those who were open to change and highly motivated from the beginning (had ‘treatment readiness’) had positive gains
- this suggests anger management may only benefit offenders who fit a certain profile, and this matters because it suggests anger management may not be suitable for everyone

Bad - Expensive
- the programmes are expensive to run as they require highly trained specialists who are used to dealing with violent offenders
- this may mean many prisons do not have the resources to fund it and if they spend the money on this there may be implications for the economy
- the success is also often based on the commitment of the prisoners, and this will be a problem if they are apathetic or uncooperative
- this could mean the process takes longer in these circumstances, leading to further expense
- this matters because it suggests cost effective, and effective anger management programmes are probably not going to work in most prisons

Question 51

Evaluate Restorative Justice as a way of Dealing with Offending Behaviour

Answer 51

Good - Evidence suggests positive outcomes
- researchers conducted a 7 year research project and found:
85% of survivors of crime reported satisfaction from meeting the offenders face to face
78% would recommend it to others in a similar situation
60% felt better about the incident
Only 2% said they felt worse after
- this suggests Restorative Justice achieves some of its aims and helps survivors cope with the aftermath
- this matters as it suggests RJ is a successful way of dealing with offending behaviour that benefits the offender and survivors

Good - It seems to lead to decreased Recidivism
- researchers conducted a meta analysis of 10 studies comparing face-to-face RJ and custodial sentencing
- the RJ group was significantly less likely to reoffend
- this was especially the case in violent criminals
- another researcher found lower recidivism rates with adult offenders using one-to-one contact rather than general community involvement
- this suggests RJ has a positive impact on reoffending, which matters because it suggests it works and has good real world application

Bad - Offenders may abuse the system
- RJ will be a success if the offender genuinely wants to make amends because they regret the hurt caused
- however, many sign up to reduce their sentence, to play down their faults, or to maintain their relationship with the survivor using direct contact
- some offenders might only sign up to seek their own revenge or retribution as they believe custodial sentencing alone will not achieve these aims
- this may explain why not all offenders benefit, and some reoffend
- this matters because it suggests the effectiveness of RJ to deal with offending behaviour depends on the circumstance and type of offender