Issues and Debates Flashcards
1
Q
What is Alpha Bias?
A
Research that exaggerates differences between males and females
- it often presents differences as fixed and inevitable
- it often de-values women in relation to men
2
Q
What does Alpha Bias often do?
A
- presents differences as fixed and inevitable
- de-values women in relation to men
3
Q
What is an example of Alpha Bias in psychological research?
A
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development
4
Q
How do Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development show Alpha Bias?
A
The Oedipus and Electra Complex during the Phallic stage suggests boys have castration anxiety, which is resolved when they identify with their father
This fear is not as strong in girls during the Electra complex, and so it suggests they have a weaker identification with their mother and a weaker superego
This suggests women are morally inferior to men
5
Q
What is Universality?
A
The aim to create theories and explanations that apply to all people, regardless of differences in experience or gender
6
Q
What is Gender Bias?
A
Where Psychological theories may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men or women (usually women)
7
Q
What is Bias?
A
The tendency to treat one individual or group differently to another
8
Q
What is Beta Bias?
A
Research that ignores or underestimates differences between individuals or groups
9
Q
What is an example of Beta Bias in Psychological Research?
A
Research into the Fight or Flight response
10
Q
How does Research into the Fight or Flight Response show Beta Bias?
A
Research was conducted on a male sample (male animals and humans), and so it ignores female’s regular hormonal changes due to ovulation
The research assumed the fight or flight response is equal for males and females, ignoring any possible gender differences
Research has now found that women adopt a ‘tend and befriend’ response (proposed by Taylor et al., 2000) as females produce more oxytocin (the love hormone) during fight or flight, and look for social support to protect themselves (and evolutionarily their children)
This suggests there is a misrepresentation of women as biological differences were ignored
11
Q
What is Androcentrism?
A
Male-dominated or Male-only research
Normal behaviour is then judged according to the male standard, and females are seen as abnormal or deficient
12
Q
What are examples of Androcentrism in Psychological Research?
A
Asch:
He used 123 Male American Undergraduate Students to test conformity
In replicated studies with women, it has been found women are more conformist than men, suggesting Asch’s research told us little about conformity due to it being androcentric
Maguire:
She used 16 London Male Taxi Drivers to research plasticity
Ignored any possible differences in brain structures or functions in females
13
Q
What is Gynocentrism?
A
Female-Dominated or Female-only research
14
Q
What is an example of Gynocentrism in Psychological Research?
A
Moscovici:
Used 36 females to test minority influence
Ignored any potential differences between male and female behaviour
15
Q
Evaluate Gender Bias
A
Bad - Promotes Sexism in the Research Process
- women are underrepresented in University departments (especially sciences)
- research has shown lecturers are more likely to be male
- this suggests research is more likely to be conducted by men, so it may disadvantage female participants
- this could mean institutional structures and methods of psychology might produce gender bias results or findings
Bad - Research challenging Gender Bias might not be published
Formanowicz:
- analysed over 1,000 articles relating to Gender Bias over 8 years
- found research into Gender Bias was funded less and published less often by prestigious journals
- this means there is less awareness of Gender Bias
- they also found Gender Bias was reported less than other types of bias (e.g. Culture Bias), which suggests Gender Bias is taken less seriously than other types of Bias
Bad - Gender Differences are presented as fixed and enduring when they are not
Maccoby and Jacklin
- presented findings of several gender studies that concluded girls have better verbal ability, and boys have better spatial ability
- they suggested these differences are hard-wired into the brain before birth
- these findings have been widely reported and seen as facts
Joel et al
- used brain scanning to test Maccoby and Jacklin’s theory
- found no sex differences in brain structures or processing
- suggests Maccoby and Jacklin’s findings were popularised as they fit into existing gender stereotypes
- suggests we should be wary of accepting research as biological facts when they may be social stereotypes
16
Q
What did Formanowicz do/find?
A
- analysed over 1,000 articles relating to Gender Bias over 8 years
- found research into Gender Bias was funded less and published less often by prestigious journals
- this means there is less awareness of Gender Bias
- they also found Gender Bias was reported less than other types of bias (e.g. Culture Bias), which suggests Gender Bias is taken less seriously than other types of Bias
17
Q
What did Maccoby and Jacklin do/find?
A
- presented findings of several gender studies that concluded girls have better verbal ability, and boys have better spatial ability
- they suggested these differences are hard-wired into the brain before birth
- these findings have been widely reported and seen as facts
18
Q
What did Joel et al do and find?
A
- used brain scanning to test Maccoby and Jacklin’s theory
- found no sex differences in brain structures or processing
- suggests Maccoby and Jacklin’s findings were popularised as they fit into existing gender stereotypes
- suggests we should be wary of accepting research as biological facts when they may be social stereotypes
19
Q
What is Culture Bias?
A
The tendency to report all phenomena through the ‘lens’ of ones own culture, ignoring the effects cultural differences may have on behaviour
20
Q
What did Henrich et al do?
A
Suggested a group of people who are most likely to be studied by psychologists
Other groups are seen as inferior or abnormal
21
Q
What was Henrich’s suggested group of people?
A
Westernised
Educated people from
Industrialised
Rich
Democracies
22
Q
What pneumonic can I use for Henrich’s suggested group of people?
A
WEIRD
W - Westernised
E - Educated (people from)
I - Industrialised
R - Rich
D - Democracies
23
Q
What is Ethnocentrism?
A
Seeing the world from ones own cultural perspective and believing it is normal or correct
24
Q
What is an example of Ethnocentrism in Psychological Research?
A
(Most research is conducted in the UK or USA and generalised to or compared to collectivist cultures)
Ainsworth and Bell’s Strange Situation:
- reflected Western child-rearing norms and attachment types
- this led to misinterpretation of other cultures who deviated from the American ‘norm’ (e.g. more insecure attachments)
25
What is Cultural Relativism?
Insisting behaviour can only be properly understood if Cultural Context is considered
26
What are the two approaches of Psychological Research? (culture)
Emic Approach
Etic Approach
27
What is the Etic Approach?
Looking at behaviour from outside a given culture, and attempting to describe it as universal (generalise it)
28
What is the Emic Approach?
Looking at behaviour from inside a given culture, and identifying behaviours specific to that culture
29
What happens when research uses the Etic Approach?
There is an Imposed Etic
30
What is an Imposed Etic?
When behaviour is studied inside one culture, and is applied universally assuming this is the universal norm
31
What are examples of Imposed Etics in Psychological Research?
Ainsworth and Bell's Strange Situation:
- they studied attachment types from inside America
- they generalised the attachment type ideals and assessment methods universally
Jahoda's Criteria for Ideal Mental Health:
- assessed American ideals for mental health
- applied these universally (generalised)
32
Evaluate Culture Bias
Bad - Many of the most influential studies in Psychology are Cultural Biased
- Asch and Milgram used US participants only, and when they were replicated in collectivist cultures there were greater levels of conformity and obedience
- this suggests our understanding of some topics (such as social influence) should only be applied to individualist cultures
HOWEVER
Good - Due to increased media globalisation, it is argued the individualist/collectivist distinction no longer applies
- recent research found 14/15 studies that compared the US and Japan found no evidence of individualism or collectivism
- this suggests cultural bias in psychological research may be less of an issue in recent research
Bad - Cultural Bias has led to prejudice against groups of people
- in WWI, intelligence tests for recruits were ethnocentric as they assumed everyone knew American facts (such as president names)
- this meant African Americans and Eastern Europeans received the lowest scores, and their poor performance was used to inform racist beliefs about inferiority
- ethnic minorities were seen as 'mentally unfit' compared to white majorities, and they were denied educational and professional opportunities
- this illustrates how Cultural Bias and Ethnocentrism justifies Prejudice and discrimination towards Ethnic Groups
Good - The Emergence of Cultural Psychology
- Cultural/multicultural psychology is the study of how people shape and are shaped by cultural experience
- it is an emerging field
- it takes an Emic approach to avoid Ethnocentric Assumptions
- they research from inside a culture, and if cross-cultural, they only use 2 cultures and avoid large-scale studies
- this suggests modern-day psychologists are more mindful of the dangers of Culture Bias, and are taking steps to avoid it
33
What is Free Will?
The belief humans can make their own choices, and are self-determining of their own actions
34
What is Determinism?
The idea that an individual's behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces, rather than their will
35
What are the 2 categories of Determinism?
Soft Determinism
Hard Determinism
36
What is Soft Determinism?
The belief behaviour may be predictable or guided by forces outside of our control, but there is restricted free will as there is room for some personal choice
37
What is Hard Determinism?
The belief forces outside our control shape and control our behaviour, and free will is an illusion
38
What is an example of Soft Determinism?
The Cognitive Approach
- believes behaviour may be determined by our biology and our internal mental processes, but also believes we can choose what we pay attention to through mediational processes
39
What is an example of Hard Determinism?
The Biological Approach
- sees all behaviour as governed by internal biological processes
40
What are 3 types of Determinism?
Biological Determinism
Environmental Determinism
Psychic Determinism
41
What is Biological Determinism? (+ example)
The belief behaviour is caused by biological influences we cannot control
e.g. our genes (biological approach)
42
What is Environmental Determinism? (+ example)
The belief behaviour is caused by features of our environment we cannot control
e.g. behaviourists believe in stimulus/response associations causing our behaviour (behaviourist approach)
43
What is Psychic Determinism? (+ example)
The belief behaviour is caused by unconscious, uncontrollable conflicts repressed in childhood
e.g. Freud's psychosexual stages of development (psychodynamic approach)
44
What approach does Science believe in: Determinism or Free Will?
Determinism
45
What are Causal Explanations?
The idea that every event in the universe has a cause that can be explained using general laws
Believes in Determinism
46
Why is there Scientific Emphasis on Causal Explanations and Determinism?
Knowledge of a cause and formulation of laws allows scientists to predict and control future events
47
What techniques do we use for Causal Explanations?
Lab Experiments demonstrate causal relationships by removing extraneous variables to make precise predictions of human behaviour
Experimental psychology also aims to find cause/effect relationships, so it is deterministic
48
Why is Free Will inconsistent with the assumptions of Science?
It implies behaviours are not caused
If a person's behaviour and thinking comes from their ability to control their behaviour then there is no clear, scientific cause (it is unfalsifiable)
49
Evaluate Free Will vs Determinism
Free Will:
Good - Practical Value
- we exercise free choice in our everyday life, or at least we think we do
- research looked at adolescents with a strong belief in fatalism - the idea our lives are decided by factors outside of our control (external LOC) - and it found they were at a greater risk of depression than those with internal LOC
- this suggests even believing we have free will may have a positive impact on our mind and behaviour
Good - Our legal system includes Free Will, not Determinism
- Hard determinism suggests individual choice is not the cause of behaviour, but in court, individuals are held responsible for their actions
- the main principle of our legal system is that a defendant exercised their free will to commit a crime
- this suggests deterministic arguments do not work in the real world
Determinism:
Bad - it could excuse evil behaviour
- Stephen Mobley attempted to use Biological Determinism to help his court case
- he claimed he shot the Domino's Pizza manager due to him possessing a criminal gene as his family were also criminals
- this suggests determinism can be used for negative effects, and that restricted free will should be included to allow blame to be placed on evil individuals
Good - Brain Scan Evidence (biological determinism)
Libet et al
- linked participants to a brain scanning machine and asked them to complete actions and move
- brains illuminated with activity before the participants decided to physically move
- this supports determinism as it suggests even our basic experiences of free will are actually determined by our brain first
However
Bad - this study lacks mundane realism
50
What is the Nature-Nurture Debate?
The debate of whether our behaviour is a product of inherited characteristics (nature) or acquired characteristics (nurture)
51
What are the key beliefs of Nature?
- Our behaviour is the product of innate biological or genetic factors
- Psychological characteristics such as personality and intelligence are biologically determined through genes
52
Who was a theorist for Nature?
Descartes
53
What did Descartes do?
An early psychologist who believed all human characteristics - including personality - are innate
Supports the Nature side of the Nature-Nurture debate
54
What research supports the Nature side?
Bowlby:
- argued children are biologically programmed to form attachments to survive - innate drives
- believed in maternal deprivation and suggested it can lead to the death of the next generation
- believed in the internal working model
- believed natural selection passes genes on to help the next generation survive
55
What are the key beliefs of Nurture?
They emphasise the influence experiences and the environment have on us
They believe we are born as blank slates at birth, and that we are shaped by our environments
56
What are Empiricists?
People who believe in Tabula Rasa (nurture)
57
What is Tabula Rasa?
The belief humans are born as blank slates, and learn all behaviour by being shaped by our environments
58
What is an example of Nurture in Psychological Research?
The Behaviourist Approach:
Skinner
Pavlov
Conditioning
The Learning Approach:
attachments are formed due to stimulus-response association with the mother and her milk
59
What is the Interactionist Approach? (nature-nurture)
The idea that any characteristic or behaviour may be from a combination of both nature and nurture
60
What is an example of the Interactionist Approach in Psychological Research? (nature-nurture)
Bowlby:
believed attachments are innate drives
also believed attachment types were determined by the warmth and continuity of parental love, which demonstrates an interactionist approach
61
What is the Diathesis Stress Model? (nature-nurture)
The idea that behaviour is caused by a biological or environmental vulnerability, coupled with a biological or environmental or psychological stressor
62
What are examples of the Diathesis Stress Model? (nature-nurture)
OCD
Schizophrenia
- both of these conditions are believed to be caused by a genetic vulnerability plus an activating event/trigger (OCD), or stress from the environment (Sz)
63
What are Epigenetics?
A change in our genetic activity without the genes themselves changing
64
How do Epigenetics work/happen?
- It happens throughout life
- It is caused by interactions, lifestyles and events throughout our life
- They may be passed on to children
65
Why do we look at Epigenetics in Nature/Nurture?
It produces a 3rd element to the nature-nurture debate: the experience of previous generations
66
Evaluate the Nature-Nurture Debate
Good - Adoption studies can separate nature and nurture
- a meta-analysis found genetic influences account for 41% of aggression in adopted children
- this suggests there are both genetic and environmental influences on aggression, which supports interactionism
Bad - Research suggests people create their own 'nurture' by selecting environments that suit their 'nature'
- aggressive children in an adoption study might feel more comfortable with people who are similar, so they choose the more aggressive environment
- this suggests we should not try to separate the two
Good - Real world support for Epigenetics
- during WWII, Nazis blocked the food distribution to Dutch people
- 22,000 people died of starvation
- research found women who were pregnant went on to have lower birth weight babies, and these babies were twice as likely to develop schizophrenia
- this support the idea that experiences of previous generations can leave epigenetic markers on the health and genes of their offspring
Good - Real world application
Nestadt
- researched the heritability of OCD
- put it at 0.76
- this can inform genetic counselling
- this matters because it means we can understand the precautions and attempt to reduce stressors
HOWEVER
- we need to understand heritability does not mean inevitability
- it only means there is a risk/likelihood and diathesis
67
What is the Holism-Reductionism Debate?
The question of whether holism or reductionism is the better approach to understand human behaviour
68
What is Holism?
The belief human behaviour should be viewed as a whole, rather than segregated parts
69
What is Reductionism?
The belief human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down to smaller parts
70
Which psychologists adopt a holistic approach?
Gestalt Psychologists
71
What do Gestalt Psychologists do?
Believe knowing about the whole rather than individual parts is better because individual parts do not let us understand the essence of the person
They use a holistic approach
They believe subdividing experiences and behaviours into smaller units is inappropriate
72
What are examples of Holistic Research?
The Humanistic Approach
- focuses on individuals' experiences
- is subjective and idiographic
- uses qualitative methods to investigate
73
Is Holism or Reductionism in line with Science? Why?
Reductionism
- it is easier to empirically test smaller parts
74
What are Levels of Explanation?
The different ways to explain behaviour from a reductionist approach
The different levels can be more reductionist
75
What are the Levels of Explanation? (least to most reductionist)
Socio-cultural
Psychological
Physical
Behavioural/Environmental
Physiological
Neurochemical
76
What is the Least Reductionist Level of Explanation?
Socio-Cultural level
77
What is the Most Reductionist Level of Explanation?
Neurochemical
78
What are examples of components at the Levels of Explanation using OCD?
Socio-cultural - OCD interrupts social relationships
Psychological - The person's experience of anxiety
Physical - movements (e.g. washing one's hands)
Behavioural/Environmental - learning experiences
Physiological - abnormal functioning in the frontal lobes
Neurochemical - underproduction of serotonin
79
What pneumonic can I use to remember the Levels of Explanation?
Some
Pigs
Phat
Because
Pork
Nice
80
What are 2 types of Reductionism?
Biological Reductionism
Environmental Reductionism
81
What is Biological Reductionism?
Reducing/Minimising behaviour to a physical level
- explaining behaviour using neurons, neurotransmitters hormones, brain structures, and evolution
- includes physiological and neurochemical levels
82
What is an example of Biological Reductionism?
Biological explanations of OCD
- drugs that increase serotonin are effective in treating OCD
- suggests OCD is from low serotonin
- reduces OCD to level of neurotransmitter activity
83
What is Environmental Reductionism?
Reducing/Minimising behaviour to simple stimulus-response associations
- assumes behaviour is learnt through experience and that complex behaviours are learnt through a series of stimulus-response chains
84
What is an example of Environmental Reductionism?
Learning Theory of Attachment:
- reduces the love/attachment between a caregiver and infant to a learned association
85
Evaluate Holism Vs Reductionism
Holism:
Good - Provides a complete picture
- reductionism can only ever form part of an explanation as other contexts, such as social reasons, are missing
- this may mean holism has greater validity
Bad - May lack practical value
- if we take into account every experience that may affect a behaviour, it may be difficult to know which is the most influential
- it may mean treatments are more difficult to administer and comparisons are harder due to qualitative data
- this matters because the findings are less generalisable, so perhaps the holistic view is not as useful
Reductionism:
Good - Forms the basis of a Scientific Approach
- it operationalises variables to study which allows for behavioural categories, standardisation, and quantitative data to be used
- this gives it greater credibility and replicability, which can lead to reliability
Bad - Some behaviours may only be understood at a higher level
- some aspects of social behaviour only emerge in a group context, and so cannot be understood by studying individual components
- for example, conformity was only observed in a group and there is no 'conformity gene'
- this suggests some behaviour can only be explained at the level they occur, so perhaps reductionism lacks validity as it is not useful for every behaviour/situation
86
What is the Idiographic-Nomothetic Debate?
The debate whether research should study individuals or groups to make generalisations
87
What is the Idiographic Approach?
The believe psychology should study individuals and their unique experiences, as it should help us understand human behaviour more
- it does not attempt to formulate general laws
- it is subjective and obtains detailed information about an individual or group
88
What types of Research does the Idiographic Approach use?
Qualitative Research
Subjective Research
89
Why does the Idiographic Approach use Qualitative Research?
It gives detailed, first-hand responses from a small group of people
90
How does the Idiographic Approach use Qualitative Research?
- It may use in-depth interviews, focusing on a particular human behaviour
- The answers may then be analysed to find the key themes
- The results may help others who have similar issues to help find or create treatments
91
What is an example of how the Idiographic Approach works?
Depression:
Coping Mechanisms are given
Unstructured interviews are completed
This leads to using CBT, or understanding antidepressants are needed
92
What is Subjective Research?
Research that usually focuses on case-studies as they believe individual experience and unique context is important, and objectivity is impossible
93
Which approach uses Subjective Research?
The Idiographic Approach
94
What are examples of the Idiographic Approach?
The Humanistic Approach:
Carl Rogers
- his understanding of unconditional positive regard and conditions of worth came from in-depth conversations and client-centred therapy
The Psychodynamic Approach:
Freud
- used Little Hans as a case study to explain the associations and conditioning involved in Phobias
95
What is the Nomothetic Approach?
An approach that aims to establish general laws/principles of behaviour based on the study of larger groups of people
96
What types of Research does the Nomothetic Approach use?
Quantitative Research
Objective Research
97
What is Quantitative Research?
Methods where hypotheses are formed and samples of people are assessed
Numerical Data is produced and analysed for its statistical significance
It seeks to quantify human behaviour
98
Is the Idiographic or Nomothetic approach Scientific? Why?
Nomothetic
It closely fits traditional models of the scientific method as it uses clearly structured and controlled methods using hypotheses and numerical data in attempt to establish general laws
99
What is Objective Research?
Research that believes the creation of laws of behaviour are only possible if methods of assessment are delivered in a standardised and objective way
It ensures replication can occur across all samples of behaviour without bias
100
What are examples of the Nomothetic Approach?
The Behaviourist Approach:
Skinner
- used animal studies that were highly controlled
- developed general laws of reinforcement behaviours in rats
The Biological Approach/Biopsychology:
Sperry
- used repeated testing for split brain research
- was the basis of understanding hemispheric lateralisation
101
Evaluate the Nomothetic vs Idiographic Debate
Idiographic:
Good - It contributes to the Nomothetic Approach
- In-depth, qualitative methods that provide a global description of an individual may shed light on general laws or challenge them
- A single case might generate hypotheses for further studies
- for example, patient HM's abnormal functioning suggested the MSM of memory was incorrect, and Phineas Gage led to the Paradigm Shift from the Holistic Theory of the brain to the Localisation Theory
- This suggests that although the focus is on individuals, the idiographic approach may still form scientific laws of behaviour
Bad - The Idiographic Approach is restricted
- There is no adequate baseline to compare behaviours to, therefore generalisations cannot be made
- The idiographic approach also does not use scientific methods
- Conclusions of the qualitative data is subjective to the researcher, and so it is open to researcher bias
- This suggests it is difficult to generalise without the nomothetic approach
Nomothetic:
Good - Fits the aims of Science
- Uses standardised procedures that allow for replicability
- This means the Nomothetic Approach could raise the quality of Psychology as a Science
Bad - Loss of understanding of the individual
- The preoccupation with general laws, prediction and control means it has been accused of losing the 'whole person'
- Simply knowing facts does not make us understand what it is like for the person affected, or what would be beneficial for them
- Understanding the subjective experiences may make it easier to find treatments
- This suggests the Nomothetic Approach may be less comprehensive than the Idiographic Approach
102
What are Ethical Implications?
The consequences of any research on individual participants or ways groups of people are regarded on a wider social level
103
Who are the researchers for Social Sensitivity?
Seiber and Stanley
104
What did Seiber and Stanley do?
Suggested the concept of Social Sensitivity
105
What did Seiber and Stanley say Social Sensitivity is?
Studies in which there are potential consequences or implications - either directly for the participants or indirectly for the class of individuals represented by the research
106
What groups of people are affected by Social Sensitivity?
The Participants themselves
The class of individuals represented by the research
107
What is an example of research that is unlikely to be Socially Sensitive?
Studies on LTM in a student population
- students might be drawn from different social groups
- the participants might not represent a social group
108
What is an example of research that is likely to be Socially Sensitive?
Studies on Depression
- individual participants may reveal personal information that is then shared with an employer
- findings of studies overall may suggest people with depression never fully recover, so the public may associate depressed people with risks as an employee
109
How might Socially Sensitive Research impact Social Policies?
LTM studies might affect Exam Policies
Depression studies might affect NHS Treatment Policies
110
What are 3 Implications of Ethical Implications and Social Sensitivity for the Research Process?
Research Questions
- the way they are phrased and investigated might influence the interpretation of findings
Dealing with Participants
- issues like informed consent, confidentiality, and psychological harm may be especially important
The way Findings are used
- researchers should consider in advance how the findings will be used as it may impact the data they collect
111
What is an example of Dealing With Participants according to Social Sensitivity?
Studies on Domestic Abuse Sufferers:
- may be stressful as they may worry their ex partner will find out
- this may mean there is a higher exercise of the right to withdraw and withdraw of informed consent
112
Evaluate Ethical Implications
Good - Can have benefits for the groups studied
- for example, homosexuality was removed as a disorder from the DSM-5 after interviews with 5,000 men about their sexual behaviour concluded that homosexuality is a typical expression of human sexual behaviour
- this matters because it could mean there are positive implications of potentially socially sensitive research
Bad - There could be Negative Consequences for groups being studied
- criminal genes have been used as an excuse for crimes (Stephen Mobley)
- this could mean some people could be convicted on the basis they have a criminal gene, or they could be excused as they cannot be held accountable for wrongdoing
- this suggests that there is careful consideration needed of the possible outcomes of socially sensitive topics and their consequences
Good - Some sectors rely on Socially Sensitive Research
- for example, the NHS, Childcare, Crime and Education sectors all need access to socially sensitive research so they can change and update their policies to suit the needs of those groups of people
- this matters because it suggests a need for socially sensitive research for some areas, despite the ethical implications
