Issues and Debates Flashcards
What is Alpha Bias?
Research that exaggerates differences between males and females
- it often presents differences as fixed and inevitable
- it often de-values women in relation to men
What does Alpha Bias often do?
- presents differences as fixed and inevitable
- de-values women in relation to men
What is an example of Alpha Bias in psychological research?
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development
How do Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development show Alpha Bias?
The Oedipus and Electra Complex during the Phallic stage suggests boys have castration anxiety, which is resolved when they identify with their father
This fear is not as strong in girls during the Electra complex, and so it suggests they have a weaker identification with their mother and a weaker superego
This suggests women are morally inferior to men
What is Universality?
The aim to create theories and explanations that apply to all people, regardless of differences in experience or gender
What is Gender Bias?
Where Psychological theories may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men or women (usually women)
What is Bias?
The tendency to treat one individual or group differently to another
What is Beta Bias?
Research that ignores or underestimates differences between individuals or groups
What is an example of Beta Bias in Psychological Research?
Research into the Fight or Flight response
How does Research into the Fight or Flight Response show Beta Bias?
Research was conducted on a male sample (male animals and humans), and so it ignores female’s regular hormonal changes due to ovulation
The research assumed the fight or flight response is equal for males and females, ignoring any possible gender differences
Research has now found that women adopt a ‘tend and befriend’ response (proposed by Taylor et al., 2000) as females produce more oxytocin (the love hormone) during fight or flight, and look for social support to protect themselves (and evolutionarily their children)
This suggests there is a misrepresentation of women as biological differences were ignored
What is Androcentrism?
Male-dominated or Male-only research
Normal behaviour is then judged according to the male standard, and females are seen as abnormal or deficient
What are examples of Androcentrism in Psychological Research?
Asch:
He used 123 Male American Undergraduate Students to test conformity
In replicated studies with women, it has been found women are more conformist than men, suggesting Asch’s research told us little about conformity due to it being androcentric
Maguire:
She used 16 London Male Taxi Drivers to research plasticity
Ignored any possible differences in brain structures or functions in females
What is Gynocentrism?
Female-Dominated or Female-only research
What is an example of Gynocentrism in Psychological Research?
Moscovici:
Used 36 females to test minority influence
Ignored any potential differences between male and female behaviour
Evaluate Gender Bias
Bad - Promotes Sexism in the Research Process
- women are underrepresented in University departments (especially sciences)
- research has shown lecturers are more likely to be male
- this suggests research is more likely to be conducted by men, so it may disadvantage female participants
- this could mean institutional structures and methods of psychology might produce gender bias results or findings
Bad - Research challenging Gender Bias might not be published
Formanowicz:
- analysed over 1,000 articles relating to Gender Bias over 8 years
- found research into Gender Bias was funded less and published less often by prestigious journals
- this means there is less awareness of Gender Bias
- they also found Gender Bias was reported less than other types of bias (e.g. Culture Bias), which suggests Gender Bias is taken less seriously than other types of Bias
Bad - Gender Differences are presented as fixed and enduring when they are not
Maccoby and Jacklin
- presented findings of several gender studies that concluded girls have better verbal ability, and boys have better spatial ability
- they suggested these differences are hard-wired into the brain before birth
- these findings have been widely reported and seen as facts
Joel et al
- used brain scanning to test Maccoby and Jacklin’s theory
- found no sex differences in brain structures or processing
- suggests Maccoby and Jacklin’s findings were popularised as they fit into existing gender stereotypes
- suggests we should be wary of accepting research as biological facts when they may be social stereotypes
What did Formanowicz do/find?
- analysed over 1,000 articles relating to Gender Bias over 8 years
- found research into Gender Bias was funded less and published less often by prestigious journals
- this means there is less awareness of Gender Bias
- they also found Gender Bias was reported less than other types of bias (e.g. Culture Bias), which suggests Gender Bias is taken less seriously than other types of Bias
What did Maccoby and Jacklin do/find?
- presented findings of several gender studies that concluded girls have better verbal ability, and boys have better spatial ability
- they suggested these differences are hard-wired into the brain before birth
- these findings have been widely reported and seen as facts
What did Joel et al do and find?
- used brain scanning to test Maccoby and Jacklin’s theory
- found no sex differences in brain structures or processing
- suggests Maccoby and Jacklin’s findings were popularised as they fit into existing gender stereotypes
- suggests we should be wary of accepting research as biological facts when they may be social stereotypes
What is Culture Bias?
The tendency to report all phenomena through the ‘lens’ of ones own culture, ignoring the effects cultural differences may have on behaviour
What did Henrich et al do?
Suggested a group of people who are most likely to be studied by psychologists
Other groups are seen as inferior or abnormal
What was Henrich’s suggested group of people?
Westernised
Educated people from
Industrialised
Rich
Democracies
What pneumonic can I use for Henrich’s suggested group of people?
WEIRD
W - Westernised
E - Educated (people from)
I - Industrialised
R - Rich
D - Democracies
What is Ethnocentrism?
Seeing the world from ones own cultural perspective and believing it is normal or correct
What is an example of Ethnocentrism in Psychological Research?
(Most research is conducted in the UK or USA and generalised to or compared to collectivist cultures)
Ainsworth and Bell’s Strange Situation:
- reflected Western child-rearing norms and attachment types
- this led to misinterpretation of other cultures who deviated from the American ‘norm’ (e.g. more insecure attachments)
What is Cultural Relativism?
Insisting behaviour can only be properly understood if Cultural Context is considered
What are the two approaches of Psychological Research? (culture)
Emic Approach
Etic Approach
What is the Etic Approach?
Looking at behaviour from outside a given culture, and attempting to describe it as universal (generalise it)
What is the Emic Approach?
Looking at behaviour from inside a given culture, and identifying behaviours specific to that culture
What happens when research uses the Etic Approach?
There is an Imposed Etic
What is an Imposed Etic?
When behaviour is studied inside one culture, and is applied universally assuming this is the universal norm
What are examples of Imposed Etics in Psychological Research?
Ainsworth and Bell’s Strange Situation:
- they studied attachment types from inside America
- they generalised the attachment type ideals and assessment methods universally
Jahoda’s Criteria for Ideal Mental Health:
- assessed American ideals for mental health
- applied these universally (generalised)
Evaluate Culture Bias
Bad - Many of the most influential studies in Psychology are Cultural Biased
- Asch and Milgram used US participants only, and when they were replicated in collectivist cultures there were greater levels of conformity and obedience
- this suggests our understanding of some topics (such as social influence) should only be applied to individualist cultures
HOWEVER
Good - Due to increased media globalisation, it is argued the individualist/collectivist distinction no longer applies
- recent research found 14/15 studies that compared the US and Japan found no evidence of individualism or collectivism
- this suggests cultural bias in psychological research may be less of an issue in recent research
Bad - Cultural Bias has led to prejudice against groups of people
- in WWI, intelligence tests for recruits were ethnocentric as they assumed everyone knew American facts (such as president names)
- this meant African Americans and Eastern Europeans received the lowest scores, and their poor performance was used to inform racist beliefs about inferiority
- ethnic minorities were seen as ‘mentally unfit’ compared to white majorities, and they were denied educational and professional opportunities
- this illustrates how Cultural Bias and Ethnocentrism justifies Prejudice and discrimination towards Ethnic Groups
Good - The Emergence of Cultural Psychology
- Cultural/multicultural psychology is the study of how people shape and are shaped by cultural experience
- it is an emerging field
- it takes an Emic approach to avoid Ethnocentric Assumptions
- they research from inside a culture, and if cross-cultural, they only use 2 cultures and avoid large-scale studies
- this suggests modern-day psychologists are more mindful of the dangers of Culture Bias, and are taking steps to avoid it
What is Free Will?
The belief humans can make their own choices, and are self-determining of their own actions
What is Determinism?
The idea that an individual’s behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces, rather than their will
What are the 2 categories of Determinism?
Soft Determinism
Hard Determinism
What is Soft Determinism?
The belief behaviour may be predictable or guided by forces outside of our control, but there is restricted free will as there is room for some personal choice
What is Hard Determinism?
The belief forces outside our control shape and control our behaviour, and free will is an illusion
What is an example of Soft Determinism?
The Cognitive Approach
- believes behaviour may be determined by our biology and our internal mental processes, but also believes we can choose what we pay attention to through mediational processes
What is an example of Hard Determinism?
The Biological Approach
- sees all behaviour as governed by internal biological processes
What are 3 types of Determinism?
Biological Determinism
Environmental Determinism
Psychic Determinism
What is Biological Determinism? (+ example)
The belief behaviour is caused by biological influences we cannot control
e.g. our genes (biological approach)
What is Environmental Determinism? (+ example)
The belief behaviour is caused by features of our environment we cannot control
e.g. behaviourists believe in stimulus/response associations causing our behaviour (behaviourist approach)
What is Psychic Determinism? (+ example)
The belief behaviour is caused by unconscious, uncontrollable conflicts repressed in childhood
e.g. Freud’s psychosexual stages of development (psychodynamic approach)
What approach does Science believe in: Determinism or Free Will?
Determinism
