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Gender Flashcards

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1
Q

What is Sex?

A

A person’s biological status as male or female

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2
Q

How is Sex Determined?

A

By chromosomes that influence hormonal differences
The chromosomes produce differences in anatomy such as reproductive organs, body shape, and places of hair growth

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3
Q

What is the Male Chromosome Pattern?

A

XY

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4
Q

What is the Female Chromosome Pattern?

A

XX

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5
Q

What is Gender?

A

A person’s psychological, cultural, or behavioural characteristics, relating to their sex
It is the person’s psychosocial status as masculine or feminine
It includes the attitudes, roles and behaviours that we associate with being a ‘man’ or being a ‘woman’
They are heavily influenced by social norms and cultural expectations

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6
Q

Can Sex change?

A

No, it is innate and biological

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7
Q

Can Gender change?

A

Yes
A person may become more feminine or more masculine depending on social context, and the norms and expectations associated with it

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8
Q

Is Sex or Gender Innate?

A

Sex is innate as it is assigned from birth
Gender is not innate as it is assigned due to it being a social construct rather than a biological fact

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9
Q

What are Sex-Role Stereotypes?

A

The shared expectations people in a society hold about what is masculine and what is feminine

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10
Q

How are Sex-Role Stereotypes spread or reinforced?

A

They are communicated throughout society
They are reinforced by parents, peers, the media, and within schools

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11
Q

What is wrong with Sex-Role Stereotypes?

A

They can be based on/involve sexist assumptions

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12
Q

What are examples of Sex-Role Stereotypes?

A

Females should be more involved in caring activities
- cooking
- getting children ready
- remembering birthdays

Males should be more involved in practical activities
- fixing the car
- taking the bins out
- putting up shelves

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13
Q

What is a Gender Identity?

A

An individual’s perception of their own masculinity and femininity

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14
Q

What are Intersex Children?

A

Children who experience hormonal imbalances in the womb that mean their genitals appear neither male nor female at birth
Their parents are encouraged to opt for surgery at birth to make their sex clear so they can be classified as a boy or a girl

  • 2013 - Germany was the first country to introduce a 3rd gender to the birth certificate (‘X’)
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15
Q

How is Sex established?

A

In the womb, every person is a female and has female hormones and genitalia
A sperm carries either an X or a Y chromosome to fuse with the egg’s X chromosome
When the sperm fertilises the egg, the baby becomes either a girl or a boy
The Y chromosome carries the SRY gene, which produces androgens which are male sex hormones, and this causes testes to develop

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16
Q

What is a Case Study to show how Sex is innate and should not be changed?

A

Janet Reimer and her Twins Bruce and Brian

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17
Q

What is the Case Study of the Reimer Twins?

A

Janet Reimer had twin boys - Bruce and Brian
Bruce had difficulty urinating, so was sent for a circumcision
The doctors tried a new method of circumcision, but accidentally burned Bruce’s penis off
Janet was in despair, and she saw a doctor (John Money) talking on TV about his new sex change procedures
He decided to help Bruce by turning him into a ‘girl’ by giving him surgery and fitting him with a synthetic vagina and giving him oestrogen injections
He believed this would help as he thought nature (our environment and how we are raised) could override nature, and influence sex and gender
Bruce was unhappy as a girl (Brenda) and his parents eventually told him what happened
He wanted to change back to a boy at the age of 14, so he had a double mastectomy and surgery including a prosthetic penis and testicles, and he was given testosterone injections
He called himself ‘David’
When he was , he was so unhappy by his mixture of gender that he committed suicide in his 20s

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18
Q

What is a Case Study to support the change of Gender

A

The Batista Family

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19
Q

What is the Case Study of the Batista Family?

A

Four children who lived in the Dominican Republic were identified as females as birth, but at puberty they changed into males as their vaginas closed over, testicles appeared, and they grew normal-sized penises
They had a rare genetic disorder where their male genitalia were concealed inside
This meant they were raised as girls and adopted a female gender identity
The boys abandoned their female gender identities with few problems of adjustment and quickly adapted to their new roles as boys and men, suggesting gender identity is flexible rather than fixed

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20
Q

What is Androgyny?

A

A personality type that shows a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics
- it shows a flexible gender role

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21
Q

What is an example of someone Androgynous?

A

Someone who is competitive/aggressive at work, but also a caring and sensitive parent

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22
Q

Who is the researcher for Androgyny?

A

Sandra Bem

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23
Q

What did Sandra Bem do?

A

Measured Androgyny using the Bem Sex Role Inventory

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24
Q

What did Sandra Bem believe about Androgyny?

A

She believed androgynous people are better equipped to cope with life due to having a balance of masculine and feminine traits

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25
Q

How do we measure Androgyny?

A

The Bem Sex Role Inventory
- the first systematic attempt to measure androgyny using a rating scale

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26
Q

What does BSRI stand for?

A

Bem Sex Role Inventory

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27
Q

How does the Bem Sex Role Inventory work/what was Sandra Bem’s Procedure?

A

She presented 60 different characteristics split up into 3 groups:
- 20 masculine
- 20 feminine
- 20 neutral
The participants rated themselves 1-7 for each item (1 being never true, 7 being always true)
She classified the results as:
- High Masculine, Low Feminine = Masculine
- High Feminine, Low Masculine = Feminine
- High Masculine, High Feminine = Androgynous
- Low Masculine, Low Feminine = Undifferentiated

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28
Q

What is Undifferentiated?

A

Someone who scores Low Masculine and Low Feminine on the BSRI

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29
Q

Evaluate Androgyny (and the BSRI)

A

Androgyny:

Bad - Lacks temporal and cultural validity
- what is seen as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ characteristics can differ depending on time era, culture, and environment
- this suggests we cannot determine if someone is androgynous as the ideal characteristics are ever changing

Good - Bem suggested Androgynous individuals are more psychologically healthy
- she suggested they are better equipped for life due to the range of characteristics as they can deal with situations that require a masculine, feminine or androgynous response
- this suggests there are positive implications of being androgynous
HOWEVER
Bad - This assumption has been challenged
- some researchers argued people who develop a greater proportion
of masculine traits are better adjusted to society as they are more highly valued in individualist cultures

BSRI/Sandra Bem:

Good - High internal validity and reliability
- it was piloted on over 1,000 students, and the results correlated well with their own description of their gender identity
- this suggests the BSRI has internal validity, and is a reliable method of assessing gender type
- in addition to this, it has high test-retest reliability as a smaller portion of this sample showed similar scores a month later
HOWEVER
Bad - Correlation does not equal Causation
- a student population may be limited as they may behave differently to a wider population, so the findings might not be representative or generalisable
- this matters because it could mean we should not draw conclusions from this suggestion

Bad - It is reliant on participants having a strong insight into their gender identity and degree of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny
- it is a self report technique with a fixed rating scale
- asking people to rate themselves relies on them having an understanding of their personality and behaviour, which is difficult as gender is a social construct with a more open interpretation than sex
- in addition to this, peoples’ interpretation of the 7 point scale might differ as it is subjective
- this suggests the BSRI might not be objective or scientific enough to measure androgyny

Good - Research support for Androgynous individuals having better Psychological states
Prakash et al
- tested 100 married females in India for masculine and feminine traits, and also tested their mental health, including anxiety and depression
- females who scored highly on female traits were more likely to score higher for depression
- females who scored highly on male traits (so were androgynous) were less likely to have depression
- this supports the positive implications of androgyny, and provides Bem’s theory with support

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30
Q

What are Chromosomes/the role of Chromosomes in Sex and Gender?

A

Chromosomes carry information in the form of genes
There are 23 pairs of Chromosomes in the human body
The last pair of Chromosomes determine the biological Sex
For Females, the Sex Chromosomes are XX
For Males, the Sex Chromosomes are XY
The Egg always carries and X Chromosome
The Sperm can carry an X or a Y Chromosome to determine the biological Sex of the child

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31
Q

How is Male Sex determined?

A

The Y chromosome carries an SRY gene
The SRY gene causes the productions of Androgens
Androgens are male Sex Hormones
They cause an embryo to develop as Male biologically
Without Androgens, the embryo develops as a Female

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32
Q

What are Androgens?

A

Male Sex Hormones

  • they are produced by the SRY gene in the womb
  • they cause an embryo to develop as a male biologically
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33
Q

What are Hormones? How do they work in the Sex and Gender?

A

Chemical Messengers
They influence gender development
They affect the development of the brain and reproductive organs in the womb prenatally
Androgens determine if an embryo is a male
At puberty, they trigger secondary sexual characteristics such as pubic hair

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34
Q

What are the differences in Hormones in Males and Females?

A

They produce many of the same hormones but in different concentrations
- males produce more testosterone
- women produce more oestrogen and oxytocin

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35
Q

What are 3 Hormones important for Sex?

A

Testosterone
Oestrogen
Oxytocin

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36
Q

What is Testosterone?

A

An Androgen
It controls the development of male sex organs
It affects the brain’s development
It is linked to the increase in aggressive behaviour

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37
Q

When is Testosterone produced?

A

It begins to produce at around 8 weeks of foetal development

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38
Q

What happens if Females are exposed to large amounts of Testosterone in the womb?

A

They take more interest in stereotypically male activities
During Foetal development in the womb, if a genetic female produces high levels of testosterone male sex organs may appear

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39
Q

What is Oestrogen?

A

A female hormone
It determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation
It causes some women to experience heightened emotionality and irritability during their menstrual cycle - PreMenstrual Tension (PMT)/PreMenstrual Syndrome (PMS)
It causes physical changes

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40
Q

What is Oxytocin?

A

The ‘love’ hormone
It reduces the stress hormone Cortisol and facilitates bonding
It is produced more my women
It is produced in equal amounts by men and women when being amorous (e.g. kissing)

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41
Q

Which Gender produces more Oxytocin? Why?

A

Females
The hormone stimulates Lactation which makes it possible for breastfeeding
It is released in massive quantities during labour, and after childbirth it makes a mother feel ‘in love’ with their baby

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42
Q

How does the Nature-Nurture debate work in the role of Chromosomes and Hormones in Sex and Gender

A

Chromosomes and Hormones suggests there are 2 explanations of how gender develops

Extreme Nature View:
- gender-related behaviour is entirely controlled by hormonal and genetic factors
- believes gender differences are innate
- assumes women are biologically programmed to become carers (oxytocin) and men are biologically programmed to be providers and protectors (testosterone increases aggression)

Extreme Nurture View:
- gender-related behaviour is entirely determined by social and cultural factors - our experiences and environment
- it assumes gender differences result from different experiences males and females have as they develop from family, peers and society

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43
Q

Does research suggest Nature or Nurture is stronger in determining Sex and Gender?

A

Nature - David Reimer

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44
Q

What Case Study suggests the role of Hormones and Chromosomes in Sex and Gender might be Biologically Deterministic?

A

Caster Semenya

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45
Q

What was the Case Study of Semenya?

A

Semenya was an African 800m runner and won the World Championships at just 18 years old
Semenya was intersex, and although she had female external genitalia, she had undescended testes and no ovaries or uterus
This suggests she had higher levels of testosterone than other females competing
There were new rulings in 2018 that said women with high testosterone levels need to take drugs to reduce their testosterone levels if they wish to compete in female races

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46
Q

How was the case study of Semenya Biologically Deterministic?

A

The Newspapers assumed her strong performance was solely down to the influence of the hormone testosterone, and they ignored other factors such as her training or diet
This demonstrates hard biological determinism

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47
Q

Evaluate the Role of Hormones and Chromosomes in Sex and Gender

A

Good - Research support for the role of Hormones in Gender
- researchers studied transgender individuals who were undergoing hormone treatment, and were being injected with hormones of the opposite sex
- Transgender women (male -> female) showed decreases of aggression and visuo-spatial skills
- Transgender men (female -> male) showed increases in aggression and visuo-spatial skills
- this suggests Testosterone has a powerful and direct influence on gender development, even in adulthood

HOWEVER

Bad - Contradictory evidence on testosterone’s role in Gender
- in a double-blind placebo study of testosterone increases in healthy young men, there were no significant increase in the interactional or non-interactional sexual behaviour in participants, levels of aggression, or levels of anger
- this suggests additional testosterone may have no effect on sexual or aggressive behaviour in adults
- this matters because it could mean the role of testosterone is not as important or effective as previously thought
- despite this, it does not refute or challenge the role of testosterone in early development

Bad - The biological approach to gender is Biologically Reductionist at the Neurochemical level
- it takes the complex behaviour of gender and reduces it down to just hormones and genes
HOWEVER
Good - This may be a positive
- the biological reductionism allows us to infer cause and effect easily, as we are only looking at one variable
Overall, to reduce the risk of missing important factors that could be influential in gender, perhaps a more interactionist approach would be more useful

Bad - Social Sensitivity
- PMS is claimed to be a social construction, rather than a biological fact
- this matters because it encourages damaging stereotypes of women being irrational, simply due to their hormone levels
- this could affect how women are treated in society, and belittle their experiences and emotions
- this matters because it could suggest that the role of Hormones could have negative ethical implications for females

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48
Q

How many Atypical Sex Chromosome Patterns are there?

A

2

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49
Q

What is an Atypical Sex Chromosome Pattern?

A

Anything that deviates from XX or XY chromosome patterns
They are associated with physical and psychological symptoms

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50
Q

What are the 2 Atypical Sex Chromosome Patterns?

A

Turner’s Syndrome
Klinefelter’s Syndrome

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51
Q

What is Klinefelter’s Syndrome?

A

Males who have the anatomy of a male but have an atypical sex chromosome structure of XXY

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52
Q

How many males are affected by Klinefelter’s Syndrome?

A

Around 1 in 500 to 1 in 1,000 people
2/3 of people are unaware they have it

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53
Q

What Sex is affected by Klinefelter’s Syndrome?

A

Male

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54
Q

What Sex is affected by Turner’s Syndrome?

A

Female

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55
Q

What are some Physical Characteristics of Klinefelter’s Syndrome?

A

Reduced body hair
Breast development at puberty (gynecomastia)
Longer, gangly limbs
Softer, rounder body shape
Underdeveloped genitals
Problems with co-ordination
General clumsiness
More susceptible to breast cancer

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56
Q

What are some Psychological Characteristics of Klinefelter’s Syndrome?

A

Poorly developed language skills and reading ability
Passive and shy
Do not cope well with stress
Problems with memory and problem solving

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57
Q

What is Turner’s Syndrome?

A

Where there is an absence of one of the 2 X chromosomes in a female
They have an X0 sex chromosome pattern
They have 45 chromosomes instead of 46

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58
Q

How many females have Turner’s Syndrome?

A

Around 1 in 5,000

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59
Q

What is the Sex Chromosome Pattern of Klinefelter’s Syndrome?

A

XXY

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60
Q

What is the Sex Chromosome Pattern of Turner’s Syndrome?

A

X0

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61
Q

What are some Physical Characteristics of Turner’s Syndrome?

A

No menstrual cycle
Sterile - no ovaries are developed
Do not develop breasts at puberty - have a broad ‘shield’ chest instead
Have an area of folded skin from neck to shoulders - a ‘webbed neck’
High waist to hip ratio - hips not much bigger than waist

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62
Q

What are some Psychological Characteristics of Turner’s Syndrome?

A

Higher than average reading ability
Lower performance on spatial and mathematical tasks
Socially immature
Trouble relating to their peers
Difficulty fitting in

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63
Q

Evaluate Atypical Sex Chromosome Patterns

A

Good - Practical Applications
- continued research into atypical sex chromosome patterns is likely to lead to earlier, more accurate diagnoses of Turner’s and Klinefelter’s syndromes
- research on 87 individuals with Klinefelter’s syndrome showed those who had been identified and treated at an earlier age had significant benefits compared to those who had been diagnosed in adulthood
- this suggests early diagnoses and therapeutic interventions can have a beneficial effect on physical, academic and social development
- in addition to this, research and an understanding of the syndromes can lead to treatments to be made, such as hormone replacements
- this matters because research can have positive real world applications

HOWEVER

Bad - Practical Applications are limited
- 2/3 of people are unaware they have Klinefelter’s Syndrome
- Klinefelter’s Syndrome is very difficult to spot, and only around 10% of men affected are diagnosed when treatments are most effective - in preadolescence
- this is bad because men might feel abnormal during or after puberty without a diagnosis, and they might feel like they have a self-fulfilling prophecy if they are diagnosed during puberty
- this matters because lower and late diagnoses can mean practical applications of the syndromes, such as treatments, are limited

Bad - There may be sampling issues
- in order to identify characteristics of XXY and X0 individuals, it is necessary to identify a large number of individuals with the disorder to build a database
- generally, only patients with the most severe characteristics are diagnosed, so typical characteristics might be distorted
- researchers have reported that prospective, longitudinal studies have produced a more accurate picture of the characteristics
- this suggests the typical picture of the syndromes may have been exaggerated, which matters because it might distort out understanding, therefore distorting treatments and methods of diagnosis

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64
Q

How many Cognitive Explanations of Gender Development are there?

A

2

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65
Q

What are the 2 Cognitive Explanations of Gender Development?

A

Kohlberg’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory of Gender
Gender Schema Theory

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66
Q

Who researched the Cognitive-Developmental Theory of Gender?

A

Kohlberg

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67
Q

What does Kohlberg’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory of Gender suggest?

A

A child’s understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age
There is biological maturation, so as the brain matures with age, so does thinking
A child goes through 3 stages to understand gender
The transition from stage to stage is gradual and not sudden

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68
Q

How many stages are in Kohlberg’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory of Gender?

A

3

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69
Q

What are the 3 stages in Kohlberg’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory of Gender?

A

Gender Identity
Gender Stability
Gender Constancy

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70
Q

What age is Kohlberg’s Gender Identity stage?

A

Around 2-3 years old

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71
Q

What happens in Kohlberg’s Gender Identity Stage?

A

A child can correctly label themselves as girl or boy, so they have a gender identity
At age 3, most children can identify others as male or female (if they are shown a picture and asked which one looks like them, they can usually answer correctly)
Understanding of Gender does not go beyond labelling
They are not often aware Biological Sex is permanent

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72
Q

What is an example of a child in Kohlberg’s Gender Identity Stage?

A

A boy saying “when I grow up I will be a mummy”
- they do not understand biological sex is permanent

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73
Q

Around what age is Kohlberg’s Gender Stability Stage?

A

Around 4 years old

74
Q

What happens in Kohlberg’s Gender Stability Stage?

A

Children acquire gender stability
They realise their gender identity will remain consistent over time
They cannot apply this to other people and are confused by external changes in appearance
They are egocentric as they don’t realise constancy and stability affects others

75
Q

What are examples of children in Kohlberg’s Gender Stability Stage?

A

Describing a man with long hair as a woman
Believing people change sex if they do something stereotypically linked to the other gender (e.g. female boxer is a man, male nurse is a woman)
- they do not understand other peoples’ genders stay the same across different contexts

76
Q

Around what age is Kohlberg’s Gender Constancy Stage?

A

Around 6 years old

77
Q

What happens in Kohlberg’s Gender Constancy Stage?

A

A child realises gender is stable over time and constant across different situations for themselves and other people (conservation)
They now pay attention to gender-appropriate behaviour as before this stage they thought their gender could change
Imitation of a role model occurs as children begin to seek our gender appropriate role models to identify with and imitate
A tendency towards gender stereotyping emerges at this stage

78
Q

Evaluate Kohlberg’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory of Gender

A

Good - Research Support for gender stereotyping emerging around age 6
- a researcher told children a story about a boy called George who liked to play with dolls
- they were asked to comment on the story
- 4 year olds said it was fine if George wanted to play with dolls
- 6 year olds said it was wrong for George to play with dolls
- this showed how children aged 6 had gone beyond understanding what boys and girls do, and they were developing rules about what they ought to do - gender stereotyping
- this supports Kohlberg’s theory by suggesting children around age 6 achieve constancy and have formed rigid stereotypes regarding gender-appropriate behaviour

Good - Research support for Gender Stability
- researchers used a flip book to show children ‘muddled’ pictures where hairstyles and clothes of male and female characters could be changed
- the children were then asked what gender they thought the character was
- younger children believed changing clothes changed a person’s sex
- older children understood the gender was constant, and that outward changes do not influence whether someone was male or female
- this supports Kohlberg’s theory as it demonstrates the changes in thinking between younger and older children

Bad - Research contradicting Kohlberg
Bussey and Bandura
- children as young as 4 reported ‘feeling good’ about playing with gender appropriate toys and ‘feeling bad’ about playing with opposite gender toys
- this contradicts Kohlberg’s concept that children only start seeking out gender role models and understanding sex role stereotypes during the constancy stage at age 6

Bad - Methodological Issues
- Kohlberg interviewed children as young as 2 or 3
- he tailored the questions to the age group, but he might not have acknowledged that the very young children lack the vocabulary to express their answers of their understanding of gender
- this matters because it may mean they represented what they could vocalise, rather than their true understanding
- this could mean there are confounding variables in the study which lower the internal validity of the information Kohlberg’s theory was based on

79
Q

Who theorised the Gender Schema Theory?

A

Martin and Halverson

80
Q

What type of theories are Gender Schema Theory and Kohlberg’s Gender Development Theory?

A

Cognitive Developmental Theories

81
Q

What does the Gender Schema Theory Suggest?

A

Children develop their understanding of gender by actively structuring their own learning
It believes our perception of gender is based off Schema (basic elements can be present at birth)
Schema are used by our cognitive system to organise our knowledge of the topic of gender, thus creating a generalised representation of stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour

82
Q

When do Martin and Halverson suggest Gender Schema starts/happens?

A

Once a child has established gender identity at around 2 or 3 years old

83
Q

How do Martin and Halverson believe Gender Schema leads to Gender-appropriate behaviour being taken on?

A

They believe the children will search the environment for information that encourages the development of gender schema
The gender schema is formed from information that is paid attention to and remembered
The gender schema will then form a generalised representation of everything we know in relation to gender and stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour

84
Q

How do Martin and Halverson believe Gender Schema Determine behaviour?

A

Gender schema include a wide range of behaviours and personality traits
Young children typically form schema around stereotypes
The stereotypes provide a framework that directs experience as well as the child’s understanding of itself
Children go on to develop scripts of activities and/or actions that males and females perform
Children are likely to misremember or disregard information that does not fit with their existing schema
If a behaviour is inconsistent, it is likely to be ignored so their schemas don’t need to be altered

85
Q

What age do Martin and Halverson suggest children have a fixed and stereotypical view of gender appropriate behaviour?

A

By 6 years old

86
Q

What is an In-group?

A

The same gender as the child

87
Q

What is an out-group?

A

The opposite gender to the child

88
Q

Which group is a child more likely to understand the schema-appropriate behaviour of?

A

The in-group

89
Q

Which group is a child more likely to pay attention to the schema-appropriate behaviour of?

A

The in-group
- there is an idea that children pay more attention to information relevant to their own gender identity, rather than that of the other gender (the out group)
- the in-group identity also bolsters the child’s level of self esteem

90
Q

What age do Martin and Halverson believe children develop elaborate schema for both genders?

A

Around the age of 8

91
Q

What do Martin and Halverson believe happens in children at age 2-3?

A

They search the environment for information that encourages gender schema

92
Q

What do Martin and Halverson believe happens in children at age 6?

A

They have fixed, stereotypical ideas about what is gender-appropriate behaviour

93
Q

What do Martin and Halverson believe happens in children at age 8?

A

They develop elaborate schema for both genders

94
Q

What is Assimilation?

A

To process and include information into a schema

95
Q

Why might inconsistent behaviour not lead to Assimilation?

A

It is seen as unimportant so can be ignored so schemas do not need to be altered

96
Q

What is a Gender Script? What happens after they are formed?

A

Gender Scripts are an internal representation of a set of actions that make up the routine of a gender (usual actions/behaviours)

After gender schemas and scripts are formed, children begin to pay more attention to gender stereotypes and role models

97
Q

Evaluate Martin and Halverson’s Gender Schema Theory

A

Good - Martin and Halverson conducted research that supports it
- they showed children age 6 photographs of stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour (such as a girl playing with a doll) than photographs of gender-inappropriate behaviour (such as a girl playing with a car)
- they found when they asked them to recall the images 1 week later, the children were more likely to recall gender-appropriate photographs
- the children often also misremembered the photographs and reported their expected gender (e.g. reported a boy playing with the car) so that the behaviour was now appropriate
- this supports the gender schema theory as it predicts children under the age of 6 would do this
- this matters because it increases the validity of Gender Schema Theory

Good - Research support for greater attention to the in-group
- 4-9 year olds were told certain items were for boys or girls, when they were actually gender neutral (for example, burglar alarms and pizza cutters)
- the children were seen to be more interested in items they were told were for their gender (the in-group)
- the children also remembered more details about the in-group items when asked a week later
- this matters because it supports the idea of a desire to fit gender stereotypes, and also supports the idea that children pay more attention to their in-group

Bad - The theory could overemphasise the role of the individual in gender development
- it is a cognitive theory, and so it does not pay enough attention to the role of social factors such as parental influences and surrounding culture, such as school or the media
- it ignores the role of reward and punishment, which shape behaviour as they are likely to encourage gender-stereotyped behaviour more
- this matters because it emphasises HOW schemas and stereotypes develop, but not WHY they develop or take the form they do
- it could also suggest it is a limited explanation as it ignores how reinforcements on behaviour could affect which schemas are taken on where in the world
- this is supported by cultural differences in gender schemas and stereotypes, as this shows how schema can be different - likely due to adult reinforcement and not cognition (if it were cognition it would be the same everywhere)

98
Q

How many explanations of gender are there that aren’t cognitive theories?

A

2

99
Q

What are the 2 non-cognitive explanations of Gender?

A

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Social Learning Theory

100
Q

What is Freud’s explanation of gender called?

A

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

101
Q

What are some of Freud’s key beliefs/assumptions in his Psychoanalytic Theory?

A
  • Events in childhood have a great influence on our adult lives and shape our personality and gender identity
  • The main force behind gender development is parental relationships
  • Events in our childhood can remain unconscious and cause problems in adulthood
  • Children pass through 5 biologically-driven psychosexual stages of development
  • During the 3rd stage (phallic stage), the focus of pleasure is the genitals, and the oedipus or electra complex happens to form gender identity
102
Q

What does Freud believe children’s gender identity is before the age of 3?

A
  • flexible
  • there is no clear difference between girls and boys
  • there is no real sense of being masculine or feminine (children are asexual or gender fluid, but Freud called this bisexual)
103
Q

What are Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development?

A

Oral (0-1 years)
Anal (1-3 years)
Phallic (3-5 years)
Latency (after phallic stage)
Genital (around puberty - 12years)

104
Q

What does Freud believe happens in the Phallic Stage?

A

The focus of pleasure is the genitals
Children become aware of gender differences by noticing their genitals are different to others’
Children seek pleasure from playing with their genitals
They develop the Oedipus or Electra Complex to form a gender identity

105
Q

Which gender experiences the Oedipus Complex?

A

Boys (Male)

106
Q

Which gender experiences the Electra Complex?

A

Girls (Female)

107
Q

When does the Oedipus and Electra Complex happen?

A

During the Phallic Stage (after 3 years old)

108
Q

What happens during the Oedipus Complex?

A
  • Boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mothers (they feel their love as lust)
  • They want all her attention and see their father as standing in the way
  • They develop a hatred for their father as they see them as rivals for their mothers love
  • They want their father dead so they can have their mother for themselves
  • They recognise their father is more powerful than them, so they fear their father finding out about their feelings for their mother
  • They develop Castration Anxiety as they are afraid their father might castrate them as retaliation
  • The boy must resolve the conflict between their lust for their mother and their anxiety from their father
  • To resolve this conflict - as their fear is too strong - the boys give up their love for their mother by repressing it into their unconscious
  • They then identify with their father so they can internalise the adult male role in order to fulfil their desires of lust and marriage with someone else when they are older
109
Q

What is the Conflict in the Oedipus Complex?

A

The conflict is between the lust for their mother and their fear of castration from their father

110
Q

How is the Conflict in the Oedipus Complex Resolved?

A

The boy represses their feelings towards their mother into their unconscious
They identify with their father in attempt to internalise an adult male role so that they can fulfil their unconscious desires by getting married when they are older

111
Q

What happens during the Electra Complex?

A
  • Girls are attracted to their mothers
  • They become disappointed when they realise their mother does not have a penis
  • They then develop a resentment towards their mother as they blame them for their own lack of a penis and they believe their mother castrated them - this is called Penis Envy
  • The girls transfer their sexual desires onto their fathers as they desire a baby with them
  • The girls develop a second resentment towards their mothers for standing in the way of them and their father
  • They have a conflict between the lust for their fathers and their fear of losing their mothers’ love if they found out
  • They resolve this by identifying with their mother and substituting their penis envy for the desire to have a baby
  • This allows them to internalise female gender behaviour
112
Q

What is the Conflict in the Electra Complex?

A

There is a conflict between the girls’ sexual desires for their fathers and their fear of losing their mothers’ love if they found out

113
Q

How is the Conflict Resolved in the Electra Complex?

A

The girls turn their penis envy into a wish to have a baby themselves
This allows her to identify with their mother (who had a baby - them) and so they internalise female gender behaviour

114
Q

What is Identification? (Psychoanalytic theory)

A

Identifying with the same-sex parent to resolve their conflicts
They adopt the attitudes and values of their same-sex parent (which develops a superego which then develops gender identity)

115
Q

What is Internalisation?

A

Taking on board the gender identity of the same-sex parent so they can receive a ‘second-hand’ gender identity

116
Q

Evaluate Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Gender Development

A

Good - Support for the role of the Oedipus Complex in Gender Development
- Freud suggests ‘normal’ development depends on being based by at least one male parent
- the gender identity of 49 boys aged 3-11 years were rated based on interviews with them and their families
- 75% of the boys judged to be ‘gender disturbed’ had neither a biological father or a father substitute living with them
- this suggests being raised with no father may have a negative impact on gender identity
- this matters because it supports Freud’s suggested importance of the Oedipus Complex and identification in Gender Development
HOWEVER
Bad - Methodological issues
- he interviewed young children about their unconscious
- this could mean the support for his theory is flawed, so cannot be used

Bad - Lack of evidence for some concepts
- there is no evidence of Castration Anxiety
- there is no evidence of Penis Envy
- research even contradicts some elements of Freud’s theory as it found boys with warm and supporting fathers identify better than those with overbearing and threatening fathers
- this suggests Freud’s concept of fear driving gender development is not true

Bad - Inadequate account of female development
- Freud admitted women were a mystery to him
- much of the work theorising the female gender development was conducted by his partner Carl Jung
- Penis Envy has been criticised for reflecting the patriarchal and repressive Victorian Society in which Freud lived as it bases female development off the desire to be male
- this matters as Freud made androcentric assumptions based off of the cultural, temporal context he was in with no proper understanding
- this suggests his theory is sexist and not applicable in today’s society, as well as lacking validity and evidence

117
Q

What does Social Learning Theory believe?

A

Social context has a large role in behaviour
All behaviour (including gender-related behaviour) is learned from observing others
Gender is shaped by the influence of the environment, including significant others the child comes into contact with (such as teachers, friends, family, culture and media)

118
Q

How does Social Learning Theory believe children learn Gender-Appropriate behaviour?

A

Through Direct Reinforcement, Indirect (vicarious) Reinforcement, Identification and Modelling, and Meditational Processes

119
Q

How does SLT believe Direct Reinforcement leads to learning gender?

A

Children are more likely to be positively reinforced (praised) for stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour

  • e.g. most girls would be rewarded for being passive, gentle and staying close to their parents while boys would be rewarded for rough and tumble play

Children are more likely to repeat a behaviour that has been reinforced through rewards

120
Q

What is Differential Reinforcement? (SLT)

A

The way in which boys and girls are encouraged to show distinct gender-appropriate behaviour

121
Q

What does Differential Reinforcement do?

A

Helps children learn their gender identity as they are encouraged to show distinct gender-appropriate behaviour

122
Q

What is Indirect/Vicarious Reinforcement?

A

Learning through the consequences of others’ actions

123
Q

How does SLT believe Vicarious Reinforcement leads to learning gender?

A

If a child observes a behaviour and it receives a positive reward, the behaviour is more likely to be imitated by them as it is favourable
- e.g. if a girl sees her mother be complimented for wearing make-up and a pretty dress, the girl might try and repeat the behaviour when she is able (older)

If a child observes a behaviour and it receives a negative response/punishment, the behaviour is less likely to be imitated
- e.g. if a little boy sees another boy being teased for displaying feminine behaviour, they are less likely to copy their behaviour

124
Q

What is Identification? (SLT)

A

The process where a child attaches themself to a person who is like them or someone who they want to be
The person has a quality the child sees as desirable, and these people are called role models
They might be teachers or family members with similar qualities, or they might be a famous person in the media
The child is more likely to imitate behaviours of their role models as they identify with them by sharing similar characteristics, or they want to be like them so have greater motivation

125
Q

What is a Role Model? (SLT)

A

Someone usually attractive, high status, and the same gender as a child who looks up to them
They possess qualities that a child sees as desirable, so are more likely to be imitated

126
Q

What is Modelling? (SLT)

A

The precise demonstration of a behaviour that may be imitated by an observer
When someone imitates the behaviour they have just observed, they are said to be ‘modelling’ the behaviour they have observed

127
Q

What are Meditational Processes? (SLT)

A

Cognitive internal mental processes that are used to decide whether we wish to imitate a behaviour we have just observed
We develop an expectancy about future outcomes from our learning and we only display a behaviour if our expectation of the reward is greater than the expectation of the punishment

128
Q

What are the Mediational Processes? (SLT)

A

Attention - how much we observe a behaviour
Retention - how much of the behaviour we remember
Motivation - how much we want to model this behaviour or be like that person
Motor Reproduction - our physical capability of imitation

129
Q

Who are ‘Significant Others’? (SLT)

A

Influential people the child comes into contact with in their environment, such as teachers and parents

130
Q

What is Self Efficacy? (SLT)

A

The idea that for imitation to happen, there needs to be the belief they are capable of imitation, and the behaviour needs to be noticed and meaningful

131
Q

Evaluate Social Learning Theory as an Explanation of Gender

A

Good - Supporting Evidence
- 4-6month old babies were dressed half the time in boys’ clothes and half the time in girls’ clothes irrespective of their gender
- adults were observed interacting with the children wearing the different gendered clothes
- the ‘boys’ were given ‘boy-appropriate’ toys and were encouraged to be active and adventurous
- the ‘girls’ were given ‘girl-appropriate’ toys and were told they were pretty, and were reinforced for being passive
- this suggests that gender appropriate behaviour is stamped in at an early age by surrounding adults through differential reinforcement
- this supports SLT

Good - It explains changing gender roles in Western Society
- there has been a shift in social expectations and cultural norms over the years, which has meant new forms of acceptable gender behaviour have been reinforced
- this supports SLT because it accounts for these changes in society by suggesting acceptable behaviour for the cultural and temporal norms are reinforced by other people in that society
- this suggests SLT has the best validity and real world support

Bad - There is case study contradiction
- David Reimer (Bruce/Brenda/David) showed that it was not possible to override his biological sex and gender, despite being raised by a girl and being reinforced for female behaviours
- SLT does not account for biological influences, which matters because it could lack validity as it is not comprehensive
- this could suggest we should take a biosocial approach so that it acknowledges how innate biology can be affected by reinforcement

132
Q

What are two main influences on Gender?

A

Culture
Media

133
Q

What is Culture?

A

The ideas, customs, and social behaviour of a particular group of people or society

134
Q

Why do we conduct Cross-Cultural Research for Gender Roles?

A

It can help us work out the balance of Nature and Nurture in Gender
If a gender role is shown in all cultures, it suggests it is likely to be an innate biological difference (nature)
If a gender role is culture-specific, it is likely to be caused by socialisation (nurture)

135
Q

Who are researchers supporting Culture Differences (Nurture)?

A

Mead

136
Q

Who are researchers supporting Culture Similarities (Nature)?

A

Buss
Munroe and Munroe

137
Q

What did Mead do? (Procedure)

A

She carried out a detailed ethnographic study by living with various Tribes in Papua New Guinea for 6 months
She researched 3 tribes:
- Arapesh
- Mundugumor
- Tchambuli

138
Q

What 3 tribes did Margaret Mead study?

A

Arapesh
Mundugumor
Tchambuli

139
Q

What were the characteristics of the Arapesh people?

A

Men and women were both:
- kind
- feminine
- expressive
- cooperative

140
Q

What were the characteristics of the Mundugumor people?

A

Men and women were both:
- masculine
- assertive
- arrogant
- fierce
- violent
- hostile

141
Q

What were the characteristics of the Tchambuli people?

A

Typical Gender Roles were Reversed
Men were:
- passive
- emotionally dependent on others
- seen as ‘decorative’

Women were:
- dominant
- impersonal

142
Q

What do Mead’s findings suggest?

A

There may not be a direct biological relationship between sex and gender as there were cultural differences in gender roles

143
Q

What did Buss do? (Procedure)

A

Buss carried out a survey in 37 countries where participants had to rate the importance of certain characteristics of a potential mate

144
Q

What did Buss find?

A

Males and females rated different qualities as important, and the ratings were generally the same for genders across cultures (over 37 countries)
Males:
- youth
- good looks
- chastity
- faithfulness
- ability to be a mother

Females:
- financial prospects
- industriousness/hard working nature
- dependability

145
Q

What do Buss’ findings suggest?

A

As the results were similar for each gender across 37 countries, it suggests there are cross-cultural similarities in gender roles, implying a biological aspect of gender

146
Q

What did Munroe and Munroe find?

A

In a study, they found in most societies the division of labour is organised along gender lines
Men are typically the ‘breadwinners’
Women are typically the ‘nurturers’

147
Q

Evaluate the influence of Culture on Gender Roles

A

Good - There is research support for the influence of culture on changing gender roles
- research argues that in industrialised cultures, the changing status and expectations of women are a function of their increasingly active role in the workplace and away from the domestic sphere
- this has led to a breakdown of traditional stereotypes in advanced industrialised societies
- in traditional societies, women still occupy the role of house-maker as a result of social, cultural, and religious pressures
- this matters because it suggests that gender roles are determined by cultural context

Bad - Mead’s cross-cultural research has been criticised
- Mead has been criticised and accused of making generalisations based on a short period of study
- a follow-up study on people in Papua New Guinea suggested Mead’s findings are flawed and that she had been misled by some of her participants
- She had preconceptions of what she would find due to her becoming too involved with the tribe, which may have influenced her reading of events
- this suggests there was observer bias, and possibly an element of ethnocentrism
- this matters because it may mean her observations were not objective, and so her conclusions can be questioned

148
Q

What is the Media?

A

Communication channels such as TV, films, and books through which news, entertainment, education and data are made available

149
Q

Why do we look at Media influences on Gender Roles?

A

The media provides role models that children may identify with and want to imitate
Children are more likely to choose role models that are the same gender as them, and who engage in stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour

150
Q

Who are the researchers for the Media providing clear and rigid Gender Stereotypes?

A

Bussey and Bandura
Furnham and Farragher

151
Q

What did Bussey and Bandura find?

A

They found evidence to support the media providing clear and rigid Gender Stereotypes
They found men were portrayed as independent and ambitious, while women were portrayed as dependent and unambitious in the media

152
Q

What did Furnham and Farragher do and find?

A

They studied TV adverts
They found men were portrayed more as self-directed/autonomous in professional contexts
Women were portrayed as having familial roles in a domestic setting
This suggests the media may play a role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes concerning gender-appropriate behaviour

153
Q

How does the Media use Self Efficacy?

A

It gives information to men and women in terms of how successful they may be in adopting the gender-typical behaviour as seeing others perform gender-appropriate behaviours increases a child’s belief that they are capable of carrying them out in the future

154
Q

Who researched Self-Efficacy in the Media?

A

Mitra et al

155
Q

What did Mitra at al do?

A

They analysed the attitudes of people in India after watching a programme that was designed to challenge deep-rooted gender stereotypes
The programme was a detective drama

156
Q

What did Mitra et al find?

A

They found girls who watched the programme were more likely to see themselves as capable of working outside the home than girls who did not watch the programme
This suggests their self-efficacy had changed as a result of media influence

157
Q

Evaluate the Influence of the Media on Gender Roles

A

Good - It has a theoretical basis
- the cultivation theory argues that the more time individuals spend ‘living’ in the media world, the more likely they are to believe this reflects social reality
- researchers found a positive correlation between the time spend watching the reality show Jersey Shore, and the permissive attitudes towards casual sex
- this effect was still found when researchers controlled for the influence of factors such as existing sexual attitudes, parental attitudes and religious beliefs
- this suggests the media ‘cultivates’ the perception of reality, and this affects gender behaviour

Bad - There may not be a causal relationship between gender roles and the media
- researchers argue that even very young children are not passive and uncritical recipients of media messages
- norms within a child’s family may be the bigger determinant on the child’s gender attitudes and behaviour
- if media representations confirm existing gender norms held by the family, then these are likely to be reinforced in the child’s mind
- if not, such representations are likely to be rejected
- this matters because it suggests that media influences are secondary to other influences such as family

158
Q

What is an example of Atypical Gender Development?

A

Gender Dysphoria

159
Q

What is Gender Dysphoria?

A

Atypical Gender Development where a person experiences distress and discomfort because there is a mismatch between their sex assigned at birth and their gender identity
It is the clinical diagnosis for someone who does not feel comfortable with the sex they were assigned at birth (e.g. Transgender people)

160
Q

How is Gender Dysphoria Diagnosed?

A

According to the DSM-5, it is diagnosed when someone has experienced psychological distress arising from this mismatch between sex and gender for at least 6 months
It causes significant impairment in social, occupational, and other important areas of functioning

161
Q

How is Gender Dysphoria Diagnosed in Children?

A

The same symptoms and process as adults
The Child’s desire to be of the other gender must be present and verbalised

162
Q

What main categories are there for explaining Gender Dysphoria?

A

Biological Explanations
Social-Psychological Explanations

163
Q

What are the 2 Biological Explanations for explaining Gender Dysphoria?

A

Brain Sex Theory
Genetic Factors

164
Q

Who researched/suggested Brain Sex Theory?

A

Krujiver et al

165
Q

What did Krujiver et al do?

A

Researched Brain Sex Theory

166
Q

What is Brain Sex Theory?

A

A biological explanation for Gender Dysphoria that suggests GD has a basis in brain structure
It believes the bed nucleus of the Stria Terminals (BST) is involved in emotional responses and male sexual behaviours as this was found from researching rats
- it is believed the BST varies in males and females, and so people born with the opposite sex’s size BST will have GD

167
Q

What did Krujiver et al do/find?

A

They found the Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminals (BST) is larger in men than women
They found it is female sized in transgender females
This suggests that people with GD have a BST the size of the gender they identify with rather than corresponding to their sex
Later, they also researched by counting the number of neurons:
- 6 male-to-female transgender individuals showed a sex-reversed identity pattern with average neuron numbers in the female range

168
Q

What did Zhou et al do?

A

Reported that transgender people who said they felt they were born in the wrong sex experience Dimorphism (2 forms of BST)

169
Q

What are Genetic Factors according to Gender Dysphoria?

A

The belief GD might be genetic as there are high concordance rates between identical twins

170
Q

Who researched Genetic Factors affecting Gender Dysphoria?

A

Coolidge et al
Gunter Heylens

171
Q

What did Coolidge et al do/find?

A

They assessed 157 twin pairs
They found Gender Dysphoria had a 62% concordance rate
This suggests GD has a genetic basis

172
Q

What did Gunter Heylens do/find?

A

Compared 23 MZ twins to 21 DZ twins where 1 twin had already been diagnosed with GD
They found concordance of 39% for MZ twins compared to 0% for DZ twins
This indicates the genetic factors in the development of GD

173
Q

Evaluate Biological Explanations for Gender Dysphoria

A

Good - Evidence suggests there may be other brain differences associated with GD
- researchers studied another sexually dimorphic aspect of the brain where levels of white matter varies depending on sex/gender
- they researched the proportional differences of white matter in the male and female brains of transgender individuals before they began hormone treatment as part of gender reassignment
- in most cases, the amount and distribution of white matter corresponded more closely to the gender the individuals identified as rather than their biological sex
- this suggests early, pre-existing differences in transgenders’ brains

Bad - Contradictory evidence
- Brain Sex Theory has been challenged
- researchers studied changes in transgender individuals’ brains using MRI scans which were taken during hormone treatment
- the scans showed that the size of the BST changed significantly during that time
- Krujiver examined the BST post-mortem, after the transgender individuals had received hormone treatment during gender reassignment treatment
- this suggests the differences in the BST might have been an effect of hormone treatment, rather than the cause of the Gender Dysphoria

Bad - The research could be Socially Sensitive
- for some people it might be a relief to believe it is from biology as they may place less blame on themselves for feeling different
- for others, a label may be disliked as they can lead to stigmas or unfair stereotypes
- this could mean the research has an element of social sensitivity

174
Q

What are the Social-Psychological Explanations for Gender Dysphoria?

A

Social Constructionism
Psychoanalytic Theory

175
Q

What is Social Constructionism?

A

A social-psychological explanation for GD that proposes society ‘invents’ the concept of gender identity, and GD arises because society forces people to be either a man or a woman

176
Q

Who researched Social Constructionism?

A

McClintock

177
Q

What did McClintock do/find?

A

They cited the case of individuals with a genetic condition in the Sambia of New Guinea
In this condition, the biological males are born with labia and a clitoris, but when testosterone levels rise in puberty, testes descend and the clitoris enlarges into a penis
This is a common genetic variation in the Sambia called Kwolu-Aatmwol
Through exposure to other cultures, they are now judged as having a pathological form of Gender Dysphoria

178
Q

What is the Psychoanalytic Theory?

A

A social-psychological theory that argues Gender Dysphoria is caused by extreme separation anxiety before the phallic stage when gender identity is formed

179
Q

Who researched the Psychoanalytic Theory?

A

Ovesey and Person

180
Q

What did Ovesey and Person do/find?

A

They suggested that Gender Dysphoria in biological males is caused by the child experiencing some separation anxiety before establishing their gender identity in the phallic stage
They suggest the boy fantasises of symbiotic fusion with their mother to relieve the anxiety, and this removes the danger of separation
The consequence is that the male child takes on the mother’s identity, and adopts a female gender identity so they experience GD

181
Q

Evaluate Social-Psychological Explanations for Gender Dysphoria

A

Good - The Social Constructionism approach allows fo cultures that have more than 2 genders
- some people in Samoa are biological males but adopt the gender role of women
- this is a challenge to traditional binary classifications of female and male
- the growing number of people who describe themselves as ‘non-binary’ suggests that cultural understanding is only now catching up with the lived experience of many
- this suggests Gender Identity and Gender Dysphoria is best seen as a social construction rather than a biological fact

Bad - There are issues with the Psychoanalytic Theory of Gender Dysphoria
- Ovesey and Person’s explanation does not provide an adequate account of GD in biological females, as their theory only applies to transgender women
- research found that GD in those assigned male at birth is more likely to be associated with the absence of a father than the fear of separation from the mother
- this suggests the psychoanalytic theory does not provide a comprehensive account of Gender Dysphoria

Psychology Paper 3 (6 decks)

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