paper 3 Flashcards
Superpowers:
BRICS
China:
S- economic- GDP the second largest globally at nearly $18 trillion, after the USA at $25 trillion
S- military- military spending the second largest at $293 billion, after the USA at $880 billion
W- political- strict communist government restricts soft power and cultural power due to great firewall of China
Russia:
S- military- highest estimated nuclear weapons worldwide at 5580. Protects the country from attack due to playing a large threat
S- resource- worlds largest gas exports and second largest oil exports after Saudi Arabia
W- soft power- western isolation due to war. 2024 projected loss of Russia from loss of European market is 27-34 billion dollars
India:
S- demography- worlds largest population overtaking China with 1.4 billion. Also very young with an average age of 28
S- cultural- Bollywood is the largest film industry globally worth almost 200 billion Indian rupees. Over 1000 films are produced every year
W- wealth divide within the country poses significant loss to possible economic growth. People in areas of poverty lack education needed for skills in tech business. The top 10%of the country hold the same wealth as the bottom 77%
Brazil:
S- resource- good commodity and food exports with soya beans as a top export. Large potential in an increasingly hungry world
W- political- previous president nicknamed brazil trump. Could deflect FDI and reduce their economic potential
W- resource- amazon deforestation could develop issues in the long-term. Amazon accounts for 8.6% of Brazils total GDP, whereby it is a direct source of resources and medicine . In the long-term, a lack of these resources may lead to economic and environmental instability
China in Africa neocolonialism
Neocolonialism is the indirect actions where developed countries exercise a degree of control over others, often former colonies
China is Africas largest trade partner and china buys 1/3 of its oil from Africa. Chinese increasing resource demands have driven its increased investment, particularly to resource rich nations like the DRC
Opportunities for Africa:
- Better infrastructure which can help them long term with trade routes and help their development e.g., Nairob Expressway
- job opportunities at Chinese mines
Issues for Africa:
- Countries are left lacking resources which could stunt African development. This leaves them reliant on China. A decline in the Chinese economy could therefore have a devastating impact on African nations
- Investment is not easily distributed. Some areas don’t benefit
Development theories
Modernisation theory:
This is a liberalist theory which suggests that patterns of power can change over time.
The theory suggests that there are particular stages required to become a developed country, and that there are requirements for take-off. This includes modern infrastructure, education and good governance.
However, a criticism of the theory is that it only explains the economic power aspect of superpower status. It doesn’t consider cultural power aspects into superpower status
Dependency theory:
This is a marxist theory which suggests that patterns of power are fixed and maintained by particular countries
It says that there is a periphery and a core. The periphery provide cheap raw materials and labour to the core. In return, the core provide manufactured goods back to the periphery but at a much higher cost, so the periphery remains developing.
However, a criticism is that periphery countries are developing in a globalised world, where newly industrialised countries like Singapore have broken free
World Systems theory:
This is also a marxist theory that suggests patterns of power to be fixed
It suggests 3 basic hierarchies of countries- a core, semi-periphery and a periphery. The periphery provide raw materials to semi, and the semi provide manufactured goods and cheap labour to the core. The core then sell these goods at a high price back to the semi and periphery. This means the periphery are at the bottom of the supply chain and so cannot develop
However, a criticism is that semi-periphery countries are catching up to the core, including China with the second largest GDP, who have had technological diffusion from core offshoring
Tensions from increased demand for resources
REEs- China vs USA
REEs are metals that contain one of the 17 rare earth elements from the periodic table. They are used for lots of technology including batteries and computer parts. China is the worlds largest REE producer and exporter, and can therefore control the market. The USA filed a complaint in 2010 to the WTO that China were restricting exports of REEs, which would significantly damage western economies. This led to China changing export rules in 2015
South-China sea
China, Taiwan, Vietnam, Malaysia and the Philippines all lay claim to areas of the South-China sea in their 200nm EEZ. However, China are trying to claim territory to most the sea, known as the 9-dash line. They have build islands around the spratly and have blue water navy guarding islands to attempt to claim land so that they can increase their resource power. There is suggested 18 billion barrels of untapped oil
This has caused great tension where they were taken to court by the Philippines for breaking marine rules of protecting sea life.
Arctic tension
Players include Denmark, Norway, the US, Canada and Russia. Huge oil and gas reserves may exist under the arctic ice, so global warming is increasing tensions. Russia planted their flag at the Lomonosov ridge, increasing tensions
Globalisation:
Measuring globalisation
KOF:
Measures countries globalisation using 3 data sets of social, economic and political globalisation. Each indicator is given an index value from 1-100 and scores are then averaged to get an overall score from 1 (least globalised) to 100 (most).
Criticisms:
Out of date measures include international letters per capita
It is hard to tell a countries market size accurately due to the blackmarket
AT Kearney:
Measured both cities and countries globalisation with main categories of business activity, political engagement and cultural experience. Each indicator gets a score from 0.0 to 1.0
Criticisms:
Only 62 countries included
Measuring development
GDP- measures total output of goods and services produced in a country per years.
However, it doesn’t consider the black market and off market transactions
Income per capita- mean income of a group of people. Can be easily distorted by anomalies of very rich or poor
HDI- combination of life expectancy, years in education and income- probably most accurate as measures social and economic factors
GII- measured gender inequality of a place. Uses factors like women’s empowerment and participation in the workforce. Suggests equality to be a large factor in social development (very western idea)
Gini coefficient
The gini coefficient measures inequality within countries by determining how income is distributed across populations. A coefficient of 0 represents perfect equality, whilst 1 represents complete inequality.
Criticisms:
- sample bias
- insensitive to distribution differences- one country may have many middle class, with some very wealthy and poor. Another country may have the same coefficient but have a large poor population and most wealth with a few individuals
Trade bloc IGOs
EU
- established 1993
- 27 members
-share currency
- many joined by schengen
ASEAN
- established 1976
- 10 members
- includes developing, emerging and developed countries
Impact of globalisation on environment
Globalisation can lead to environmental issues:
Increased fossil fuel emissions
There are many factors contributing to this, including shrinking world technology and planes, and global shift of manufacturing. As the rising middle class increases, consumer markets increase and so manufacturing is more polluting to places like China. Rising middle class also means more plane usage with tourism/migration
Deforestation and habitat loss
global shift and development of cities causes rural-urban migration. This leads to cities sprawling as people move for things like jobs, destroying farmland and forest areas. Deforestation also increases due to resource extraction, as wood is needed for things like furniture. The Amazon has been 20% deforested
Reducing impacts of globalisation on the environment and people
The Paris Agreement 2015- uncertainties
Local sourcing schemes and transition towns e.g., Todmorden
Ethical consumption schemes e.g., fairtrade schemes
Recycling- although can be problematic with hidden costs of high energy and water usage. Reduced resource consumption better
Carbon:
energy mixes
UK
40% renewables- 26% wind
33% natural gas
12% nuclear
USA
60% fossil fuels
21% renewable- 10% wind
18% nuclear
Japan
72% fossil fuel- mainly oil
7% nuclear- was 30% in 2010
Iceland
Number 1 renewable energy user
99% power generation is renewable
Unconventional fossil fuels
Tar sands- Canada
Tar sands are a heavy and viscous oil made of clay, sand, water and bitumen. They are injected with steam to make less viscous os they can be pumped out.
In Canada, tar sands are 97% of Canadas proven oil reserves
Deepwater oil- Gulf of Mexico
Oil and gas can be found well offshore in the deep ocean. Drilling takes place at ocean rigs to extract it.
At the gulf of Mexico, deepwater oil was being drilled and a huge explosion occurred and a fire in 2010, killing 11 workers
Shale gas- lancashire
Shale gas is natural gas trapped in sedimentary rocks. It is extracted by fracking, which is the pumping of water and chemicals into rock to force gas out.
However, it is criticised by many with NIMBYism, and in Lancashire it was reported to create mini earthquakes
Biofuels in brazil
Biofuels are another alternative renewable energy source that is increasing globally. These are fuels derived from living matter, such as crops and waste. Around 4% of global transport fuels now come from biofuels
Recently, Brazil has added biofuels to its energy mix whilst trying to diversify its mix. 90% of new passenger vehicles sold have flex-fuel engines that work using petrol and ethanol, significantly reducing the countries carbon emissions.
However, large areas of central southern Brazil are now set aside for production of sugarcane ethanol, displacing other agriculture works like cattle rearing. This means in an increasingly hungry world, less food is being grown
Energy players
OPEC
OPEC is an IGO with 13 members and between them they share approx. 80% of the worlds oil reserves (according to world economic forum 2022). OPEC aims to ensure a regular sufficient supply for consumers. However, because of their 80% of the world’s oil reserves, it is in a position to control the amount of oil and gas entering the global market as well as the price of commodities. OPEC have been accused of holding back production to drive up oil and gas prices.
Gazprom (TNCs)
The big names in the oil and gas business include Gazprom and Shell. Their roles including locating, extracting, and distributing energy. Gazprom has used its monopoly position in order to influence energy security in central and eastern Europe. Almost 40% of Europe’s energy came from Gazprom in 2021, however this may increase worries about energy security due to political tensions in Russia. Now this is down to 12% suggesting TNC reliance can decrease energy security due to political tensions.
Governments
Governments can decide national energy mixes, being mainly involved in major decision making. They can decide if sources are domestic or through pathways etc. Governments in more developed areas may have obligations in terms of reducing CO2 emissions whilst securing current and future energy supplies.
Consumers
Consumers create a demand for certain energy and have some control over the energy they consume e.g., by installing solar panels to reduce home energy costs. Pressure groups and protesting against energy like nuclear and fracking in the UK could impact the sourcing of these. For example, Greenpeace are a pressure group against nuclear energy in the UK. UK are phasing out nuclear (currently 12%)
Energy pathway disruption
An energy pathway is a flow of energy between a producer and a consumer. They refer to how energy reaches the consumer e.g., pipelines, roads, and rail.
Many factors can disrupt pathways:
Conflict- Russia/Ukraine
Conflict can destroy pathways physically. In 2022, 2 of the 23 pipelines between Russian and Europe were destroyed with gas leaks
Conflict can also lead to countries choosing to stop imports from countries, such as European imports from Russia shrinking and now get more from India
Piracy- Nigeria
The illegal taking of oil from vessel hijacks can mean that energy doesn’t reach consumers. This is particularly an issue in Nigeria whereby it is estimated that they lose 400,000 barrels of oil a day from pirates in the Gulf of Guinea, greatly damaging African economies.
Natural disasters- Japan
The Fukushima earthquake in 2011 destroyed the power line and caused nuclear accidents, suggesting vulnerable areas may be prone to energy pathway disruption
