Migration exam questions EQ1-EQ2 Flashcards
EQ1
8B.1 Evaluate the extent to which globalisation has been the main reason for the increase in migration globally (20)
High extent- economic migrants. Globalisation has changed economic systems, particularly with movement of labour. This increases rural-urban and international migration to places like China who now have SEZs. Although, China have now set in place Hokou system
Low extent- Many people migrate as refugees from war/natural disasters. For example, Mediterranean migrants. Although their ability to migrate is increased by globalisation and social media (stations of forced wanderers facebook group helped over 100,000 migrants communicate on routes to take from North Africa)
High extent- Globalisation has led to shrinking world technologies with increased pace of technology diffusion. This leads to easier travel e.g., cheap and accessible flights. This has led to people migrating for different reasons such as work and family reunification. However, also reduces need to migrate through online communication
relatively low- globalisation has led to countries changing migration policies, and although in some areas like the schengen area, migration is increased, many places have restricted migration such as Japan. Japan have very stringent policies, whereby only 3% of the population are foreign born.
8B.2 Evaluate the reasons why migration has become a complex global issue (20)
Economic inequalities
Migration has created economic disparities between countries. Economic migrants often move and send back remittances. This can exacerbate inequalities creating an ageing population and brain-drain in areas of out-migration. For example, south Asian migrants moving to Qatar (20% Indians). Areas of poverty in India can spiral in decline and increase inequalities within India and internationally.
Social strain
Vast numbers of migrants in a short space can strain a host countries social services meaning governments want to tighten policies. Can mean that there are issues in placement of migrants. For example, Mediterranean migrants to Italy and Greece, whereby Italian and Greek governments want resettlement to other EU members
Tax havens
Tax havens promote migration due to tax benefits with low/no tax on personal income, capital gains or inheritance. Individuals may move to preserve wealth. This damages economies through lack of government money for social spending, and encouragement of illegal activity like laundering which damages global economies by creating recessions. Switzerland is one of the worlds top tax havens, known for its banking secrecy.
Social tensions
Migration means migrants bring culture and leads to cultural exchange in many western societies. This can lead to rejection and discrimination in some places. For example, Germany had nearly 10 hate crimes a day in 2016 after in 2015 receiving the most asylum seeking in Europe of over 1 million
8B.2 Evaluate the extent to which the causes of migration are subject to change over time (20)
High extent- economic decrease
As global economies evolve, opportunities emerge in different countries. Pattens of manufacturing are likely to change where developing countries may see rapid economic growth with increasing connectedness, and so there may be less out-migration for economic opportunities and remittances. Oxford economics suggest that long-term growth and rapid industrialisation is likely in Asia, particularly places like Malaysia. Although, this is uncertain, and for some locations e.g., switched off countries, this doesn’t apply
Low extent- refugees
a lot of migration is due to long-term conflict where people migrate as refugees. This is unlikely to change in the long-term unless resolutions can be found. For example, Mediterranean migrants from North Africa to Italy and Greece. The Syrian war has been going on since 2011, and many of the european migrants are Syrians. Where climate change in getting worse, were likely to see more refugee migrants from disputes over things like droughts
High extent- economic decrease
technological advancements mean reasons are subject to change as new technology is created. May lead to reduced migration from easier internet communication/VR. Jobs reducing as well from new technology and robots so lack of need to migrate, particularly to developed places like global hubs. Although, some jobs cannot be done remotely and so whilst high-skilled quaternary work migration may decrease, low-skilled workers like cleaners won’t.
8B.2 Explain reasons for ethnic variation among nations (8)
Differing economic opportunities-
Countries with many economic opportunities for high or low skilled workers are likely to have more ethnic variation due to increased numbers of economic migrants. For example, Qatar attracts many low-skilled migrants from South Asia as they fill unwanted jobs and work long hours on low pay. 20% of Qatars migrant labour force is from India
Political stability/instability-
Places which are unstable and have high numbers of tensions and wars are likely to have high out-migration and lack in-migration that creates ethnic variation. They will flee to more developed and stable regions, creating ethnic diversity in stable places. For example, Mediterranean migrants to Europe mean Italy and Greece are very ethnically diverse
Political agreements and policies-
Places with open migration policies and agreements are likely to be more ethnically diverse than those with strict policies. This is why Japan has only 3% foreign born population, yet Singapore is 74% Chinese, 13% Malay and 9% Indian
8B.2 Explain why the movement of people is unrestricted within many nations (8)
Economic opportunities
Movement being unrestricted means people can choose to move to locations with higher pay. Deindustrialisation in Britain in the 1980s means many workers are driven south with the growth of more footloose industries like IT.
Lifestyle desire based on demographic
Large cities like London and Manchester attract young people in search of work and who enjoy the bust urban lifestyle. Whilst older people may out-migrate from busy urban areas for quieter paced life e.g., North Norfolk mean age is 54
Students
Students move to university in the UK, often to large student cities like Leeds where there are 5 universities.
Although, there are exceptions such as in China, the hokou system which limits internal migration.
8B.3 Evaluate the consequences of international migration (20)
Cultural tensions in host countries-
Culture clashes from places with high-in migration can occur, particularly when migrants don’t want to assimilate and instead integrate. For example, in 2016, Germany had 10 hate crimes a day, when in 2015 they received the most asylum seekers in Europe (over 1 million). Although, some areas celebrate cultural fusion e.g., Notting Hill carnival
Social/economic issues for source countries- brain drain and ageing populations from economic migrants moving out. For example, high south asian migration to Qatar due to higher pay.
Although, individuals often send back remittances to help families back in the home-country, out-migration still can have great economic and demographic issues for sources economy, and exacerbates inequalities.
Economic tensions for host-
More developed countries can see high levels of illegal migration due to better opportunities, and citizens can believe this takes their jobs away. Trump demanded a wall be built between US and Mexico border to stop illegal migrants. Illegal migrants share over 10% of workforce of Nevada (highest in US). Nevada has an over 5% unemployment rate, higher than national average 3.9%. Although, on the whole, illegal migrants from central America can help the economy e.g., in New York restaurant kitchens, filling unwanted jobs which are long hours on low pay.
Tax havens-
International migration to tax havens for parts of TNCs production or for wealthy individuals has social costs for source countries. Also promotes illegal activity like money laundering, which could lead to global recessions. For example, Switzerland
8B.3 Evaluate the view that international migration only leads to tension (20)
Agree- cultural tensions
Tensions can be created between migrants and citizens due to culture clashes. Citizens may use stereotypes to discriminate against migrants of contrasting culture. For example, after Charlie Hebdo attacks, france national votes were 13% higher in 2015
Disagree- cultural fusion
Inernational migration can lead to glocalisation if commercial and entertainment businesses, bringing and celebrating new culture. Communities can celebrate cultural mixing e.g., Notting Hill Carnival
agree- economic tensions
Tensions can be developed if citizens feel that jobs are being taken by migrants and that migrants are hurting their economy. In the US, over 10% of Nevadas economy is from illegal migrants from Central America. Unemployment is also high (over 5%, when the national average is 3.9%)
Disagree- demographic benefits
Economic migrants are young and so helpn reduce ageing populations, which in turn has long-term economic benefits. This is seen in the US and many other western cultures. Japan shows the consequences of closed borders, with the oldest population worldwide where 30% of individuals are over 65.
8B.3 Explain why countries make attempts to restrict migration (8)
Cultural tensions- culture clashes and feelings of insecurity from stereotypes about opposing cultures can lead to more people voting nationalist. For example, after Charlie Hebdo attacks in 2015, France voted 13% more nationalist in their election the same year.
Economic tensions- feeling of jobs being taken that could be done by citizens. In the US, Trump wanted to ‘Build a wall’ between US and Mexico border to prevent illegal migrants.
Social strain- High influxes of refugees and asylum seekers can cause economic and social trains e.g., Italy and Greece
EQ2
8B.4 Evaluate the extent to which nation states are formed by their history (20)
A nation state is a sovereign state of which most of the citizens are united by factors that define a nation e.g., a language.
Agree- historical border creation
Nation states are formed by their history because the Berlin conference in the 1880s was where European empires created African borders, and different borders can explain different long-term conflicts and instability in nation states. In this conference, there was a lack of thought to the people who would be actually living in these places, and instead spheres of influence were thought about. This has led to internal conflict in the DRC due to 240 ethnic groups being in one place
Disagree- natural borders e.g., US/Canada
Many nation states are formed by physical geography rather than their history and colonial powers. For example, the Niagara river is a 35 mile river which constitutes part of the US Canada boundary, separating New York from Ontario
Agree- historical ethnicity- Ukraine/Russia
Historical populations and borders have led to formation of nation states whereby countries still feel ownership over previous land. Historically, Crimea belonged to Russia and many ethnic Russians still live there. This has led to Russias annexing of Crimea, where they are trying to claim back historical land
Disagree- modern issues with contested EEZs may change borders
China is building offshore islands around the spratly islands. If China maintains control in this area, it could lead to changes in national boundaries and territorial waters. China are actively trying to extend their EEZ to claim natural resources
8B.4 Evaluate the reasons why modern nation states may contest their borders (20)
A national border is a geopolitical boundary that separates one nation state from another. They can be created by physical geography included rivers, for example the river Niagara separating the US and Canada. They can also be developed from colonial history such as the Berlin conference in 1884, drawing African borders.
Historical reasons
Iraq and Syria
Boundaries drawn by Europeans historically paid little consideration to the people actually living there. This has led to instability. In 1916, GB and France drew the boundary between Iraq and Syria to decide their own spheres of influence. This led to 25 million Kurdish population being split between Iraq, Iran, Syria and Turkey. The Iran-Iraq war and gulf war are examples of major conflict caused by instability from historical border creation
Ethnic reasons
DRC
European powers began to colonise Africa in the 1700s. The huge DRC is home to 240 ethic groups who became under joint Belgian rule in the late 1800s, gaining independence in the 1960s. Cultural diversity has posed a huge challenge to the DRC, contributing to internal conflict and external, such as Tutsi Hutu conflict with neighbouring country Rwanda
Political reasons
Taiwan sovereignty
China has claimed sovereignty over Taiwan since 1949. The issue with Taiwanese sovereignty has strained its relationships with China. In 1949, 2 million Chinese nationalists fled Taiwan and established a government of their own. Taiwan want to become a UN member but due to Chinese rule, the UN couldn’t recognize it. This could escalate into conflict with the help of US as a global superpower, who can fight back from china, however alone, Taiwan are unlikely to start any conflict.
Identity reasons
Russia Ukraine
The boundaries of Russia have changed several times including 2014 Russian annexing of Crimea and the current war. Putins rationale was that many Ukrainians are ethnic Russians. In the late 1700s, Crimea belonged to Russia and only in 1991 was it included as an independent Ukraine state. However, this was controversial as large number of ethnic Russians lived there. In 2022, there was an estimated 500,000 casualties in Russias invasion.
8B.5 Evaluate the role of nationalism in the development of the modern world (20)
Nationalism is the belief held by people belonging to a particular nation that their own interests are much more important than those of people belonging to other nations
Large role- The British Empire
Nationalism has fuelled imperialism. The European colonial era led to western values being spread globally. Mostly, this is a result of the British empire who held dominion over 1/3 of the worlds land surface and 1/4 of its people. This led to spread of British language and culture to commonwealth, such as British Raj where in India, English was taught in schools.
Then, decolonisation from the empires also involved nationalist ideas, whereby Ghandi’s speech in 1947 was a factor that led to Indias independence. This has led to a modern world where decolonised countries share many western values and language.
Small role- failed nationalist movements
Although there has been attempts from many regions and countries to gain independence, these are often unsuccessful suggesting nationalism hasn’t led to development of new nation states forming in the modern world. For example, despite Scotland wanting UK independence and 44.7% voting for independence from the UK, there would be economic issues with their independence including a lack of currency, and political issues with questioning on if they could re-join the EU. Although, they do have their own national identity, legal system and government (SNP)
Large role- Berlin conference making instability
The Berlin conference in 1884 was very important in the drawing of borders in Africa. 44% of African borders are straight lines due to European powers at the conference mainly only considering their own spheres of influence. Nationalism of European powers in border creation has led to instability and contested borders in the modern world, when African winds of change began. For example, the DRC internal conflict as a result of 240 ethnic groups being grouped together
Small role- globalisation
Globalisation has led to less feeling of nationalism due to national identities becoming blurred. This is due to the increasing interconnectedness allowing countries to have more global power such as cheaper labour by offshoring manufacturing to China. Although, some countries remain switched-off such as North Korea due to nationalist ideas, where the government are extremely nationalist, have strong control over populations and lack democracy
In conclusion, nationalism originally had a very significant role from the Berlin conference until the period of winds of change in the 1970s with the forming of nation-states and independence. However, in a globalised world, nationalist ideas become less important as we become interconnected. This therefore suggests that in the future, nationalist ideas will continue to reduce in importance of developing the modern world
Evaluate the role of nationalism in creating nation states (20)
Nationalism is the belief held by people belonging to a particular nation that their own interests are much more important than those of people belonging to other nations
Large- colonisation
The Berlin conference and expanding of empires into Africa played a large role in the formation of new nation states where many ethnic groups were under ruling of 1 empire. This has very negative implication on Africa due to a lack of considerations for Africans, and only thoughts about their own spheres of influence
Small- nationalist movements
nationalist movements have recently become more popular where places are trying to become independent. For example, Scotlands independence referendum in 2014 had 45% votes for UK independence, and SNP wan’t another referendum. However, they are unlikely to become independent in the short-term due to political implications e.g., questions on if they would be able to join the EU, and economic implications like what currency they would use. This suggests new nation states won’t for short-term but may be more likely to in the long-term
Large- winds of change
Growing resistance of African nations in winds of change revolved around strong nationalist ideas. This led to the formation of new independent nation states in Africa, then having severely negative impacts and forming the long-term instability within many African nations. For example, decolonisation of Sudan led to conflict due to diverse ethnic groups, where 2 million lives have been lost to conflict and this has led to the formation of a separate South Sudan in 2011 with 98% acceptance in the referendum. this ended Africas longest running civil war
8B.5 Evaluate the following statement
‘Nationalism has significantly created many issues in the modern developing world’ (20)
Agree- Berlin conference led to contested borders
European powers only thought about their own spheres on influence in the conference, having a strong sense of nationalism. As a result, 44% of African borders have straight lines and there is lots of instability and long-term conflict e.g., internal DRC conflict in the modern world.
Disagree- Decolonisation was partially due to nationalist ideas and increasing resistance of colonies.
For example, Ghandi’s speech in India led to their independence in 1947, and they they could regain their culture and experienced economic growth with the use of their domestic resources. This has allowed for India to be as strong as they are in the modern world, being an emerging power with a very strong cultural power through Bollywood industry.
Agree- post-colonial conflicts formed by end of colonial era. Post-colonial Sudan suffered as due to Sudans size and ethnic diversity, when it became independent in 1955 it lacked internal cohesion, so was divided based on ethnic characteristics. 2 million people lost their lives due to conflict and attacks between groups led to the formation of separate South Sudan in 2011 with 98% support in the referendum.
Disagree- Preservation of culture and stronger national identity. In Iceland, national identity has remained strong as a result of preserving history, whereby the Icelandic government maintain a strong focus on language. Names must be from an accepted list. This is important in a world with increasingly eroding culture due to westernisation.
8B.6 Evaluate the extent to which globalisation has a positive or negative influence on nation states (20)
Positive- led to global shift of manufacturing so countries economies become more developed such as China who is now on its way to becoming a superpower with the second largest GDP. Western countries gain economic benefits with cheaper labour, as well as environmental benefits.
Negative- loss of sovereignty in blocs
Trade blocs can reduce national sovereignty and decision-making abilities of countries. For example, in the EU, EU law overrides individual country law. Seen by the Factortame case whereby Spanish fishers had power over UK government as the supreme court rules eu laws over UK. Although, trade bloc membership can have large economic benefits, a positive influence to nation states
Positive- demography from migration
This is positive demographically for countries and can help reverse effects of ageing populations. For example, schengen agreement has led to high migration rates in schengen area. However, this then has huge negative effects for source countries who suffer brain drain
Negative- globalisation is involved in deregulation which has promoted use of tax havens. This is because it has become easier to send money to tax havens or for TNCs to move parts of industry there. Tax avoidance damages countries by reducing social spending.
8B.6 Evaluate the statement
low tax regimes and the deregulation of markets have led to an unequal world (20)
Low tax regimes are countries or territories with low or nil rates of corporation tax, such as Switzerland. they offer these favourable tax rates to foreign individuals or countries who can benefit from them via capital gains and banking privacy through a lack of transparency. The deregulation of markets has increased use of tax regimes as it is easier for people to ship money and move areas of business to tax havens.
Low tax regimes and deregulation of markets have very significantly led to an unequal world as it has become easier for TNCs to use tax havens due to removal or tariffs and borders, and so it is easier for them to not pay fair tax shares on their business in countries they originate from. This means that there is a lack of government money for social spending, and so countries using tax havens have reduced funding on services, leaving a larger gap between rich and poor. For example, Starbucks and Apple are known to be large users of tax havens. As a result, American public health budgets have been decreased, and so deprivation is likely to increase. Therefore, low tax regimes and deregulation of markets have led to an unequal world between the wealthiest and general populations.
Alternatively, low-tax regimes may lead to a relatively significantly more equal world because they may lack high-paying job opportunities or be developing countries in primary sectors, and so TNCs offshoring and moving areas of business there due to benefits allows diversification of economies in low-tax regimes. Large TNCs e.g., Google in Ireland can create high-paying jobs and lead to technology transfer and increase the countries competitiveness on a global scale. However, a local presence isn’t generally required in tax havens and it is possible to claim tax benefits without conducting trade or manufacturing in the country. Therefore, despite deregulation of markets, sometimes production/business isn’t moved and tax haven countries are still developing and poor e.g., Belize.
On the other hand, the deregulation of markets could cause a relatively significantly unequal world through TNCs making larger profits whilst workers are treated poorly. This is because deregulation means it becomes easier for TNCs to offshore areas of production into developing countries to increase profits, including into low-tax regimes. For example, in Bangladesh, a low tax regime, large TNCs such as Walmart have offshored areas of manufacturing there due to deregulation opening up the market, and lower costs due to cheaper labour. This can create an unequal world through worker exploitation, where workers are being exploited. For example, working conditions in Bangladesh have been found to be extremely poor, evident with the collapse if the Rana Plaza in 2013, a clothing factory for companies such as Walmart, leading to deaths of over 1100 people. However, this inequality isn’t present everywhere, and in other places like china, populations have greatly benefitted from offshoring where it has pulled approx. 770 million people out of poverty. Therefore, deregulation and offshoring into countries including low-tax regimes can relatively significantly lead to an unequal world, although this isn’t always the case
However, low tax regimes and the deregulation of markets may be suggested to somewhat significantly not make an unequal world in the future. This is because developed national governments are beginning to work together to eliminate issues surrounding tax havens. For example, president Biden has been working with EU leaders to promote a minimum corporation tax globally. They could also impose sanctions on low-tax regimes as well as countries facilitating them, which could be a major economic threat for these countries due to the role of the US and EU in the global economy. Therefore, although currently there may be a lack of actions being taken to reduce the inequality made by tax havens, deregulation can lead to interconnectedness of countries and so they can work together to promote an equal world in the future.
