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Psychology A level- Final > Paper 2 - Biopsychology > Flashcards

Paper 2 - Biopsychology Flashcards

1
Q

What are the two subsystems of the nervous system?

A

The central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

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2
Q

What does the CNS consist of, and what is its function?

A

The brain and spinal cord; it processes information and controls reflex actions.

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3
Q

What is the role of the PNS?

A

It transmits messages to and from the CNS via neurons

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4
Q

What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?

A

The sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight) and the parasympathetic nervous system (rest and digest).

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5
Q

How do the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems affect the heart?

A

The sympathetic NS increases heart rate, while the parasympathetic NS decreases it.

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6
Q

What is the main hormone of the sympathetic nervous system?

A

Adrenaline (epinephrine), released from the adrenal glands.

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7
Q

What is the main function of the endocrine system?

A

To secrete hormones that regulate bodily functions.

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8
Q

What is the ‘master gland’ of the endocrine system, and why?

A

The pituitary gland, because it controls hormone release from other endocrine glands.

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9
Q

Which gland regulates sleep through melatonin secretion?

A

The pineal gland.

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10
Q

What happens in the fight or flight response?

A

The ANS switches from parasympathetic to sympathetic activation, adrenaline is released, and physiological changes prepare the body to respond to a threat.
Then once the threat has passed, the parasympathetic NS is activated, reversing the physiological changes back to a resting state.

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11
Q

What are the three types of neurons and their functions?

A

Sensory neurons: Carry signals from receptors to the CNS.

Relay neurons: Connect sensory neurons to motor or other relay neurons.

Motor neurons: Carry signals from the CNS to muscles or glands.

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12
Q

What are the 6 key structures of a neuron?

A

Cell body
Dendrites
Axon
Myelin sheath
Nodes of Ranvier
Terminal buttons.

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13
Q

What is synaptic transmission?

A

The process by which neurons communicate across synapses using neurotransmitters.

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14
Q

How do neurotransmitters work?

A

When electrical impulses reach the presynaptic nerve terminal, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters from tiny sacs called synaptic vesicles.
Once the neurotransmitter crosses the synaptic cleft, it is taken up by the postsynaptic receptor site.
Here the chemical message is converted back into an electrical impulse and the process starts again

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15
Q

What is the difference between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters?

A

Excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g., adrenaline): Increase the likelihood of the neuron firing (depolarisation).

Inhibitory neurotransmitters (e.g., serotonin, GABA): Decrease the likelihood of the neuron firing (hyperpolarisation).

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16
Q

How do SSRIs work?

A

They block serotonin reuptake in the presynaptic neuron, increasing serotonin levels in the synaptic cleft.

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17
Q

What is localisation of function?

A

The idea that different brain areas are responsible for different physical and psychological functions.

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18
Q

What are the four lobes of the brain and their functions?

A

Frontal lobe: Higher thinking, personality, and movement (includes the motor area).

Parietal lobe: Processes sensory information (includes the somatosensory area).

Temporal lobe: Auditory processing and memory acquisition.

Occipital lobe: Vision processing

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19
Q

What is Broca’s area, and what happens when it is damaged?

A

An area in the left frontal lobe responsible for speech production; damage results in Broca’s (non-fluent) aphasia (difficulty producing speech).

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20
Q

What is Wernicke’s area, and what happens when it is damaged?

A

An area in the left temporal lobe responsible for language comprehension; damage results in Wernicke’s (fluent) aphasia (difficulty understanding speech).

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21
Q

What evidence supports localisation of function?

A

Tulving et al. (1994): Brain scans show episodic and semantic memories are stored in different parts of the prefrontal cortex.

HM case study: Removal of the hippocampus led to an inability to form new memories, supporting localisation of memory.

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22
Q

What are 3 limitations of localisation of function?

A

Brain plasticity suggests functions are not strictly fixed to certain areas, as the brain can adapt after injury.

Much of the evidence for localisation of function comes from rare, unique patients. This is a problem as it raises questions about how the findings from such small samples can be generalised to the wider population.

One limitation of Broca’s area is that there is contrasting evidence by Dronkers et al (2007) which has raised questions about Broca’s area, where they carried out an MRI scan on patient Tan’s brain. As it has been preserved in a museum in France. These MRI images show that other areas of the brain were also damaged and may have been involved in speech production, beyond simply the Broca’s area. Therefore, these findings raise questions about localisation of function in the brain particularly for language, and suggests a more holistic approach is needed.

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23
Q

What is brain plasticity?

A

The brain’s ability to adapt and reorganise itself by forming new neural connections.

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24
Q

What did Maguire et al. (2000) find in the taxi driver study?

A

London taxi drivers had a larger posterior hippocampus, showing that spatial navigation skills lead to structural brain changes.

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25
How did Kuhn et al. (2014) show plasticity using video games?
Playing Super Mario for two months increased grey matter in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum.
26
What did Bezzola et al. (2012) find in their golf study?
40 hours of golf training led to structural brain changes, showing plasticity continues in adulthood.
27
What is functional recovery of the brain after trauma?
The brain’s ability to reorganise and compensate for damage by recruiting homologous areas or forming new synaptic pathways.
28
What happens to synaptic connections during infancy?
During infancy, the brain experiences rapid growth, forming around 15,000 synaptic connections per neuron by ages 2-3.
29
What is synaptic pruning?
Synaptic pruning is the process where rarely used synaptic connections are eliminated, while frequently used connections are strengthened.
30
Describe the sample in Maguire et al.'s study.
16 right-handed male licensed London taxi drivers (mean age 44, range 32-62) Had completed The Knowledge test Compared to a control group of 16 non-taxi drivers matched for age
31
What were the key findings of Maguire et al.'s study?
Taxi drivers had a significantly larger posterior hippocampus compared to controls. The anterior hippocampus was smaller in taxi drivers. A positive correlation was found between years of experience and posterior hippocampus size.
32
What was a limitation of Maguire et al.'s study of causation, and How did Maguire et al. address the causation issue?
The study was correlational, meaning it could not determine causation. It is possible that people with naturally larger posterior hippocampi are more likely to become taxi drivers. A graph showed a positive correlation between years of taxi driving experience and hippocampal size, suggesting that the structural changes were due to experience.
33
What are the three key mechanisms of functional recovery?
Axonal sprouting – Undamaged axons grow new nerve endings to replace lost connections. Neuronal unmasking – Dormant synapses become active to take over lost functions. Recruitment of homologous areas – The opposite hemisphere takes over functions of a damaged area.
34
What is axonal sprouting?
Axonal sprouting is when undamaged neurons grow new nerve endings to reconnect neurons whose links were damaged, restoring lost functions.
35
What is neuronal unmasking?
Neuronal unmasking is when dormant synapses, which had no function, become active due to brain damage, taking over lost functions.
36
What is the recruitment of homologous areas?
This is when a function from a damaged area is taken over by a similar area in the opposite hemisphere (e.g., if Broca’s area in the LH is damaged, the RH may take over some language abilities).
37
Who was Jody Miller, and what happened to her brain?
Jody was a girl who had her entire right hemisphere removed at age 3 due to severe seizures. Over time, her left hemisphere took over visual-motor functions that were normally controlled by the right hemisphere. This demonstrated the brain’s ability to rewire itself through plasticity.
38
Who was E.B., and what happened to his brain?
E.B. was an Italian boy who had most of his left hemisphere removed at age 2.5 due to a tumour. Initially, he lost his language abilities, but after 2 years, he regained them. fMRI scans showed that his right hemisphere had taken over functions typically handled by the left hemisphere, demonstrating functional recovery.
39
What do the cases of Jody Miller and E.B. suggest about plasticity?
They show that the brain has greater plasticity at a younger age, making children more capable of reorganizing neural connections after brain damage.
40
What is a limitation of research into functional recovery?
Not all recovery is complete—sometimes maladaptive plasticity occurs, leading to phantom limb syndrome or chronic pain, showing that plasticity isn’t always beneficial.
41
What is hemispheric lateralisation?
The idea that the two hemispheres of the brain have specialized functions.
42
What does contralateral organisation mean?
The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body.
43
Which hemisphere is dominant for language?
The left hemisphere, where Broca’s area (speech production) and Wernicke’s area (language comprehension) are found.
44
Which hemisphere is dominant for visual-spatial tasks?
The right hemisphere, which is involved in visuo-motor tasks, face recognition, and creativity.
45
What are split-brain patients?
Patients who have had their corpus callosum severed to treat epilepsy, preventing communication between the two hemispheres.
46
Describe the procedure of Sperry’s study.
11 split-brain patients and 11 control participants. A quasi-experiment where visual and tactile tasks tested how each hemisphere processed information separately.
47
What were the key findings of Sperry’s research?
Describe what you see task – If an image was presented to the LVF (right hemisphere), patients could NOT describe it because language is in the left hemisphere. Tactile task – Objects placed in the left hand (right hemisphere) could not be named but could be identified by touch. Drawing task – The left hand (right hemisphere) could draw better pictures than the right hand, showing the RH controls visuo-motor skills.
48
What did Sperry conclude from his research?
The left hemisphere is responsible for language. The right hemisphere is responsible for visuo-motor tasks.
49
What are two (methodological) strengths of Sperry’s research?
Highly controlled experiment – Used standardized procedures, such as flashing an image for 0.1 seconds to ensure only one hemisphere saw it. Scientific credibility – Later fMRI and PET scans confirmed Sperry’s findings that language is lateralized to the left hemisphere.
50
What is a limitation of Sperry’s research?
Extraneous variables – The extent of corpus callosum severing varied between patients, affecting results. Gazzaniga (2013) found that patient J.W. developed some speech ability in the right hemisphere, contradicting the idea that the right hemisphere has no language function. This suggests that brain plasticity can sometimes compensate for lateralization
51
How are post-mortems used to study the brain?
Researchers study a person’s behaviour while alive, then examine their brain after death to identify lesions or abnormalities. The brain is compared to a healthy brain to determine correlations between brain damage and behaviour. Example: Broca’s patient ‘Tan’ had a lesion in the left frontal lobe, identifying Broca’s area for speech.
52
What is a strength of using post-mortems to study the brain?
They provide a high level of anatomical detail, allowing examination of deep brain structures (e.g., hippocampus) that are inaccessible via scanning techniques like EEGs
53
What is a limitation of using post-mortems to study the brain?
Findings are correlational, not causational – Brain damage observed may not have caused the behaviour, as other factors (e.g., illness, injury) could be involved.
54
How are fMRIs used to study the brain?
fMRI measures blood flow in the brain while performing tasks. Active brain areas need more oxygen, creating differences in haemoglobin oxygenation. fMRI detects these changes to identify brain activity.
55
What is a strength of using fMRIs to study the brain?
High spatial resolution (1-2mm) allows accurate differentiation between brain regions, providing detailed insights into brain function.
56
What is a limitation of using fMRIs to study the brain?
Low temporal resolution (1-4 sec delay) makes it difficult to determine the exact timing of neural activity compared to EEGs (1-10ms).
57
How are EEGs used to study the brain?
EEGs measure electrical activity in the brain using electrodes on the scalp. They detect brain wave patterns (alpha, beta, delta, theta) and are used in sleep studies and epilepsy diagnosis.
58
What is a strength of using EEGs to study the brain?
High temporal resolution (<1ms) allows real-time tracking of brain activity, making EEGs useful for studying fast processes like sleep cycles
59
What is a limitation of using EEGs to study the brain?
Poor spatial resolution – EEG signals come from many neurons at once, making it hard to pinpoint the exact brain regions involved.
60
How are ERPs used to study the brain?
ERPs measure brain response to specific stimuli (e.g., sounds, images) by averaging EEG recordings to filter out background noise, leaving only stimulus-related activity.
61
What are the two types of ERPs?
Sensory ERPs (occur within 100ms, linked to sensory processing) and Cognitive ERPs (occur after 100ms, linked to higher-level processing).
62
What is a strength of using ERPs to study the brain?
More specific than EEGs – Background noise is filtered out, isolating the brain’s response to a particular stimulus.
63
What is a limitation of using ERPs to study the brain?
Poor spatial resolution – Hard to pinpoint where in the brain the activity originates.
64
What is a strength of using fMRI for lie detection?
High spatial resolution allows researchers to pinpoint the exact brain areas activated when lying, providing more accuracy than polygraphs.
65
What are the three main types of biological rhythms?
Circadian (lasting about a day), Ultradian (occurring more than once within 24 hours), and Infradian (lasting more than a day).
66
What is a biological rhythm?
A cyclical variation over some period of time in physiological or psychological processes, influenced by internal body clocks (endogenous pacemakers) and external environmental changes (exogenous zeitgebers).
67
What is a circadian rhythm?
A biological rhythm that lasts approximately 24 hours, regulated by endogenous pacemakers (internal body clocks) and exogenous zeitgebers (like light). A key example is the sleep-wake cycle.
68
What experiment did Michel Siffre conduct to study circadian rhythms?
Siffre spent six months alone in a cave to discover how his natural sleep-wake cycle would function without exogenous zeitgebers. He found his cycle ranged from 18 to 52 hours and concluded that humans can manage their biological rhythms without external cues, but would need companionship.
69
What are the practical implications of circadian rhythm research?
Research has led to understanding shift work issues, like reduced concentration at circadian troughs, and the development of treatments like chronotherapeutics, which use timing to improve drug effectiveness.
70
What does research by Boivin et al. (1996) suggest about shift work?
Night shift workers experience reduced concentration around 6 am when their circadian rhythm is at its lowest, increasing the risk of accidents and errors.
71
What are the limitations of circadian rhythm research?
Studies like Siffre’s involve small sample sizes and case studies, which lack generalisability. While studies like Aschoff and Wever's use a nomothetic approach, they may overlook individual differences like morning or evening preferences.
72
What are ultradian rhythms and what are the stages of sleep?
Ultradian rhythms are biological cycles lasting less than 24 hours. The stages of sleep include: Stage 1: Light sleep with alpha waves. Stage 2: Drowsy state with theta waves and sleep spindles. Stage 3: Deep sleep with delta waves. Stage 4: Very deep sleep, also known as slow-wave sleep. REM: Rapid eye movement, dreaming, and increased brain activity.
73
What are the strengths of using sleep labs for studying ultradian rhythms?
Sleep labs provide objective, quantitative data and allow replication of research, helping establish general patterns in sleep cycles.
74
What are the drawbacks of sleep lab research on ultradian rhythms?
Lab settings may lack ecological validity, as they require participants to sleep in controlled environments, which may influence their natural sleep patterns.
75
What did Tucker et al. (2007) find about individual differences in ultradian rhythms?
Tucker found significant individual differences in the duration of sleep stages, particularly stages 3 and 4, suggesting that ultradian rhythms vary between individuals.
76
What is an infradian rhythm, and what is an example?
Infradian rhythms last longer than a day. An example is the menstrual cycle, which lasts about 28 days, with hormonal changes and ovulation.
77
What did Stern and McClintock (1998) demonstrate about menstrual cycles?
They found that exposure to pheromones from other women led to menstrual synchrony, where women’s menstrual cycles aligned with the "odor donors."
78
What are exogenous zeitgebers and endogenous pacemakers?
Exogenous zeitgebers are external cues (like light, food, noise) that regulate biological rhythms. Endogenous pacemakers are internal body clocks that control biological rhythms, such as the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN).
79
How do endogenous pacemakers work to regulate circadian rhythms?
The SCN in the hypothalamus detects light levels via the optic chiasm, which then stimulates the pineal gland to release melatonin, causing sleep.
80
What did DeCoursey et al. (2000) find about the role of the SCN in circadian rhythms?
When chipmunks had their SCN destroyed, their sleep/wake cycle disappeared, and many were killed by predators, highlighting the SCN’s importance in survival.
81
What did Ralph et al. (1990) discover about the SCN?
They found that transplanting SCN cells from mutant hamsters with a 20-hour sleep cycle into normal hamsters resulted in the second group adopting the 20-hour cycle.
82
What is the limitation of the research on SCN and circadian rhythms?
Research on animals like hamsters may not fully apply to humans due to differences in physiology and the presence of more exogenous zeitgebers in humans.
83
What is the role of exogenous zeitgebers in regulating biological rhythms?
Exogenous zeitgebers, like light, social cues, and temperature, help entrain biological rhythms. Light, for example, helps synchronize the circadian rhythm with the local environment.
84
How can light be used to help with jet lag, according to Burgess et al. (2003)?
They found that continuous bright light exposure helped participants adjust their circadian rhythm by making them feel sleepier closer to the local time, aiding in reducing jet lag.
85
What is sleep hygiene?
Sleep hygiene refers to practices that improve sleep quality and duration, such as maintaining regular sleep schedules and creating an optimal sleep environment.

Psychology A level- Final (8 decks)

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