Paper 1 - Psychopathology

Question 1

What does the Statistical Deviation definition of abnormality mean?

Answer 1

Statistical Deviation means a behaviour is considered abnormal if it is infrequent or rare, typically presented on a bell-shaped curve where most scores are in the middle and the extremes are considered abnormal.

Question 2

What is one advantage of the Statistical Deviation definition?

Answer 2

One advantage is that it is objective, as it uses clear numerical cut-off points, allowing mental health professionals to assess behaviours consistently without subjective opinions.

Question 3

What is one limitation of the Statistical Deviation definition?

Answer 3

A limitation is that some abnormalities, like high IQ, are considered rare but are desirable. Also, common disorders, like depression, may not be classified as abnormal because they are statistically common.

Question 4

What does the Deviation from Social Norms definition of abnormality mean?

Answer 4

Deviation from Social Norms means behaviour that goes against explicit (law-breaking) or implicit (unwritten societal expectations, e.g., personal space) norms, making it socially unacceptable.

Question 5

What is one advantage of the Deviation from Social Norms definition?

Answer 5

One advantage is that it is flexible, adapting to changing societal norms. For example, a high IQ would not be considered abnormal because society values intelligence

Question 6

What is one disadvantage of the Deviation from Social Norms definition?

Answer 6

One disadvantage is that it is subjective, as societal norms can vary between cultures and individuals, leading to inconsistent judgements about what is considered abnormal.

Question 7

What is a criticism of the Deviation from Social Norms definition related to cultural bias?

Answer 7

It is criticised for cultural bias, as it may label someone as abnormal according to the societal norms of one culture, ignoring different cultural standards (ethnocentrism).

Question 8

What does Failure to Function Adequately mean in the context of abnormality?

Answer 8

Failure to Function Adequately refers to an inability to cope with the demands of everyday life, such as personal distress, irrational behaviour, or suffering.

Question 9

What is one advantage of the Failure to Function Adequately definition?

Answer 9

One advantage is that it considers subjective experiences, helping to understand the individual’s personal distress and providing context for diagnosis.

Question 10

What is one limitation of the Failure to Function Adequately definition?

Answer 10

A limitation is that some forms of abnormality, like certain criminals, may not cause distress or dysfunction, yet they still may be considered abnormal and go undiagnosed.

Question 11

What does Deviation from Ideal Mental Health mean?

Answer 11

Deviation from Ideal Mental Health defines abnormality as the lack of healthy characteristics, such as self-actualisation, a positive attitude to oneself, and the ability to resist stress.

Question 12

What is one limitation of the Deviation from Ideal Mental Health definition?

Answer 12

One limitation is that it sets unrealistically high standards, as few people can consistently maintain all the criteria for ideal mental health.

Question 13

What is a cultural limitation of the Deviation from Ideal Mental Health definition?

Answer 13

It is ethnocentric, as it is based on Western, individualistic cultures, which may not be applicable to collectivist cultures that focus more on group identity and achievement.

Question 14

Who developed the six criteria for ideal mental health and what does “A SPEAR” stand for?

Answer 14

Marie Jahoda (1958) developed the six criteria for ideal mental health:

Accurate perception of reality

Self-actualisation

Positive attitude to oneself

Environmental mastery

Autonomy

Resisting stress

Question 15

What are the 2 behavioural characteristics of Phobias?

Answer 15

Panic - when someone with a phobia is presented with the stimuli: crying freezing, screaming or sweating may occur.

Avoidance – actively avoiding any contact with the stimulus.

Question 16

What are the 2 emotional characteristics of Phobias?

Answer 16

Anxiety – Experiencing high levels of anxiety when in contact with the stimulus makes it difficult for the individual to relax and have any sort of positive emotions

Fear – Coupled with anxiety is an intense feeling of fear linked to the fight or fight response

Question 17

What are the 2 cognitive characteristics of Phobias?

Answer 17

Irrational Beliefs - Unreasonable and illogical beliefs about the feared stimuli, and think it is a lot more scary, dangerous and harmful than it is.

Selective Attention – An internal mental process which when in contact with the feared stimulus, it interferes with other tasks as their attention is so taken up with the stimuli, that they lack cognitive ability for other tasks.

Question 18

What are the 2 behavioural characteristics of Depression?

Answer 18

Lack of Energy and Pleasure – A lack of engagement and participation in daily activities like work, school, or social life, leading to withdrawal from these activities.

Disruption to Sleep and Eating Behaviour – Significant changes to sleep and eating patterns, such as insomnia or excessive sleep, and changes in appetite (e.g., overeating or lack of appetite).

Question 19

What are the 2 emotional characteristics of Depression?

Answer 19

Depressed Lowered Mood – A continuous, persistent low mood and feelings of sadness.

Lowered Self-Esteem – Feelings of diminished self-worth and negative perceptions of oneself.

Question 20

What are the 2 cognitive characteristics of Depression?

Answer 20

Inability to Concentrate – Struggling to make decisions or focus on tasks that were previously simple or routine.

Negative Thoughts – Focusing excessively on negative aspects of life and failing to acknowledge positive elements.

Question 21

What are the 2 emotional characteristics of OCD?

Answer 21

Compulsions – Repetitive behaviours or rituals that an individual with OCD feels driven to perform to reduce anxiety.

Reduced Social Activity – Anxiety associated with OCD may lead to avoidance of social interactions and problems in relationships.

Question 22

What are the 2 behavioural characteristics of OCD?

Answer 22

Anxiety – Intense anxiety or distress caused by the obsessive thoughts or compulsive behaviours.

Depression – A low mood or loss of pleasure in activities, caused by the constant disruption from obsessive thoughts and compulsions.

Question 23

What are the 2 cognitive characteristics of OCD?

Answer 23

Obsessive Persistent Thoughts – Distressing, intrusive thoughts, images, or words that dominate the individual’s mind for extended periods of time (weeks, days, or months).

Understanding the Irrationality – An awareness that their thoughts and behaviours are irrational, but still being unable to control them.

Question 24

What is the Behavioural Explanation of Phobias?

Answer 24

The Behavioural Explanation of Phobias suggests that phobias are learned through classical conditioning. A phobia is developed when an unconditioned stimulus (such as a loud noise) causes an unconditioned response (fear and anxiety), which is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus (the phobia stimulus) until the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that causes fear and anxiety.

Question 25

What is Hobart Mowrer’s Two Process Model of Phobias?

Answer 25

Hobart Mowrer’s Two Process Model suggests that phobias are developed through classical conditioning (Stage 1), and the behaviour is maintained through operant conditioning (Stage 2). The avoidance of the phobic stimulus reinforces the fear because it reduces the anxiety caused by the phobia, making the avoidance behaviour stronger over time.

Question 26

How does Negative Reinforcement maintain a Phobia?

Answer 26

Negative reinforcement occurs when a person avoids a phobic stimulus, thereby reducing anxiety or fear. This avoidance strengthens the phobia over time because the individual is rewarded by not experiencing the unpleasant emotions linked to the phobia.

Question 27

What is the strength of the Behavioural Explanation of Phobias?

Answer 27

A strength of the Behavioural Explanation is that it is supported by evidence, such as Watson and Rayner’s Little Albert experiment, which clearly shows how a phobia can develop through classical conditioning. This provides a well-controlled lab study that validates the idea of phobia development.

Question 28

What is the strength of the Behavioural Explanation of Phobias regarding practical application?

Answer 28

Systematic Desensitisation is based on classical conditioning and counter-conditioning. The patient is gradually exposed to the phobic stimulus in a controlled, hierarchical manner, while learning to associate relaxation (a positive response) with the feared stimulus. The process works because contrasting emotions (fear and relaxation) cannot coexist (reciprocal inhibition).

Question 29

What is a weakness of the Behavioural Explanation of Phobias regarding biological preparedness?

Answer 29

Martin Seligman – Biological Preparedness argued that humans are genetically predisposed to learn an association for something that is highly fearful, from an evolutionary standpoint, a phobia of the dark, snakes or loud noises would aid survival.

Question 30

What is a weakness of the Behavioural Explanation of Phobias regarding reductionism?

Answer 30

Does not take into account the role of cognitive processes when developing a phobia, One of the key characteristics of phobias are irrational thoughts, researchers like Beck have drawn attention to the importance of irrational thoughts like overgeneralising and catastrophising that can be involved in peoples fears. Therefore, it can be argued that the behaviourist theory of phobias is oversimplified because it neglects such cognitive processes

Question 31

What is the concept of Reciprocal Inhibition in Systematic Desensitisation?

Answer 31

Reciprocal inhibition refers to the idea that two opposing emotions (such as fear and relaxation) cannot occur simultaneously. In Systematic Desensitisation, the individual learns to replace the fear response with a relaxation response, reducing anxiety towards the phobic stimulus.

Question 32

What is Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VERT)?

Answer 32

Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy (VERT) is a modern version of systematic desensitisation, where virtual reality is used to expose the individual to the feared stimulus in a safe and controlled environment, allowing for gradual desensitisation.

Question 33

What is Flooding in the Treatment of Phobias?

Answer 33

Flooding involves immediate, intense exposure to the feared stimulus without gradual steps. It works on the principle of extinction, where repeated exposure to the phobic stimulus without avoidance leads to a decrease in anxiety over time.

Question 34

What is a Strength of Systematic Desensitisation?

Answer 34

A strength of Systematic Desensitisation is that it is less traumatic than flooding, as it involves gradual exposure, making it more suitable for individuals who may find the shock of flooding distressing. It also allows the patient to take control of their progress, which can lead to higher success rates.

Question 35

What is a Limitation of Flooding?

Answer 35

A limitation of flooding is that it can cause significant emotional harm due to the intense, immediate exposure to the phobic stimulus. If the session ends prematurely, the phobia may not be extinguished, and the fear may even be reinforced

Question 36

What is a Limitation of Systematic Desensitisation?

Answer 36

Another limitation of systematic desensitisation is that it is time consuming, the patient might have to undergo multiple long sessions, where as flooding is less expensive and quicker as you will only need one session, and this has seen to be very effective. This means the drop out rate is lower than systematic desensitisation and potentially then more effective and accessible for treating phobias.

Question 37

What is another explanation for behavioural treatments to phobias (compare)

Answer 37

There are biological treatments such as beta blockers and benzodiazepines which reduce the physiological response to a phobic stimulus, these are beneficial as short-term solutions for phobias as they are less time consuming as therapy sessions might be, additionally they might be more cost effective especially for fears which are not encountered in day-to-day life. However, it is important to note that drug treatments come with many side effects and are not a long-term cause of the treatment.

Question 38

What are negative self-schemas in relation to Beck’s Cognitive Triad?

Answer 38

Negative self-schemas are cognitive frameworks that develop in childhood due to experiences like criticism or rejection, leading individuals to interpret information about themselves negatively, contributing to depression.

Question 39

What are cognitive biases in Beck’s Cognitive Triad?

Answer 39

Cognitive biases are irrational thought patterns, such as overgeneralisation and catastrophising, which cause individuals with depression to interpret situations in an excessively negative way.

Question 40

What is the Negative Triad in Beck’s explanation of depression?

Answer 40

The Negative Triad consists of three pessimistic views held by individuals with depression: a negative view of the self, a negative view of the world, and a negative view of the future.

Question 41

What does the "A" stand for in Ellis’s ABC Model of Depression?

Answer 41

"A" stands for Activating Event—an external situation that triggers irrational beliefs, but does not directly cause depression.

Question 42

What does the "B" stand for in Ellis’s ABC Model of Depression?

Answer 42

"B" stands for Belief—an individual's irrational interpretation of an event, which leads to negative emotions and contributes to depression.

Question 43

What does the "C" stand for in Ellis’s ABC Model of Depression?

Answer 43

"C" stands for Consequences—the emotional and behavioural effects that result from irrational beliefs, such as sadness, withdrawal, and avoidance behaviours.

Question 44

What study supports Ellis’s ABC Model?

Answer 44

Taghavi et al. (2006) compared depressed patients with non-depressed individuals and found that those with depression scored higher in irrational beliefs, supporting Ellis’s idea that faulty thinking plays a role in depression.

Question 45

What is a practical application of Beck’s and Ellis’s cognitive explanations of depression?

Answer 45

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is a practical application, helping patients identify and challenge negative thought patterns to develop more rational ways of thinking.

Question 46

What is a criticism of the cognitive explanation for depression regarding external factors?

Answer 46

The cognitive explanation blames the individual’s thought patterns rather than considering external factors like abuse or poverty, which may be the true cause of their depression.

Question 47

How does the biological explanation challenge the cognitive explanation for depression?

Answer 47

Low serotonin levels are linked to depression, and antidepressants like SSRIs improve symptoms, suggesting a biological basis that the cognitive approach does not fully address.

Question 48

What is the main goal of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) for depression?

Answer 48

CBT aims to identify and challenge negative thought patterns and replace them with more rational, constructive ways of thinking.

Question 49

What is "thought catching" in Beck’s CBT?

Answer 49

Thought catching involves patients recording and identifying their negative automatic thoughts in a thought diary to challenge and replace them with more rational beliefs.

Question 50

What is "patient as scientist" in Beck’s CBT?

Answer 50

"Patient as scientist" encourages individuals to test the validity of their negative thoughts by gathering evidence for and against them, like conducting an experiment.

Question 51

What is behavioural activation in Beck’s CBT?

Answer 51

Behavioural activation involves encouraging patients to engage in enjoyable activities to challenge avoidance behaviour and improve mood.

Question 52

What does "D" stand for in Ellis’s extended ABCDE model?

Answer 52

"D" stands for Disputing, where therapists challenge irrational beliefs using logical, empirical, or pragmatic disputing techniques.

Question 53

What does "E" stand for in Ellis’s extended ABCDE model?

Answer 53

"E" stands for Effect, which refers to the positive emotional and behavioural outcomes that result from replacing irrational thoughts with rational ones.

Question 54

What are the three types of disputing in Ellis’s CBT approach?

Answer 54

Logical disputing (does the belief make sense?) Empirical disputing (is there evidence for/against it?) Pragmatic disputing (is the belief helpful?).

Question 55

What is a strength of CBT according to March et al. (2007)?

Answer 55

March et al. found that after 46 weeks, 86% of depressed patients improved with CBT, showing that it is an effective treatment.

Question 56

Why might CBT not be suitable for all patients?

Answer 56

CBT requires motivation and commitment, which may be difficult for severely depressed individuals, making it less effective for some.

Question 57

How does CBT compare to drug treatments for depression?

Answer 57

CBT avoids side effects associated with antidepressants like SSRIs, but it requires active participation, whereas medication works passively and acts faster.

Question 58

What is the genetic explanation for OCD?

Answer 58

The genetic explanation suggests that OCD is inherited through specific genes. The COMT gene, which regulates dopamine, has a variation linked to higher dopamine levels in OCD sufferers (Tukel et al., 2013). The SERT gene, responsible for serotonin transmission, has also been linked to OCD, as seen in Ozaki et al. (2003), where 6 out of 7 family members with a mutated SERT gene had OCD.

Question 59

What is the neural explanation for OCD?

Answer 59

The neural explanation suggests that OCD is caused by imbalances in neurotransmitters and abnormal brain circuits. High dopamine levels are linked to compulsions (Kim et al., 2007), while low serotonin levels contribute to anxiety (Soomro et al., 2009). Overactivity in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and a faulty caudate nucleus lead to an overactive worry circuit (Buecke et al., 2013).

Question 60

How do neurotransmitter levels influence OCD?

Answer 60

High dopamine levels increase compulsive behaviours, while low serotonin levels are associated with heightened anxiety, which worsens OCD symptoms. Research by Kim et al. (2007) found that increasing dopamine in OCD patients intensified compulsive behaviours, while Soomro et al. (2009) found that serotonin-boosting drugs effectively reduced OCD symptoms.

Question 61

What is the role of abnormal brain circuits in OCD?

Answer 61

The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) detects perceived threats and sends signals to the thalamus. Normally, the caudate nucleus filters out unnecessary signals, but in OCD, it malfunctions, leading to an overactive worry circuit. Buecke et al. (2013) found increased OFC activity in non-medicated OCD patients, correlating with symptom severity.

Question 62

What is a strength of the biological explanation of OCD?

Answer 62

A strength is its practical application in developing drug treatments like SSRIs, which target the serotonin system and reduce OCD symptoms. The effectiveness of SSRIs highlights the biological basis of OCD and supports the genetic and neural explanations.

Question 63

What is a weakness of the biological explanation of OCD?

Answer 63

The diathesis-stress model suggests that while genes may create a predisposition for OCD, environmental factors trigger its development. Cromer et al. (2007) found that over 50% of OCD patients had experienced a traumatic event, suggesting that biological explanations alone are insufficient.

Question 64

Why is the biological explanation of OCD considered deterministic?

Answer 64

It assumes that OCD is entirely caused by genetics and neural factors, implying that individuals have no control over their condition. This deterministic view may increase distress among OCD sufferers by suggesting their compulsions are inevitable and unchangeable.

Question 65

How do SSRIs work as a biological treatment for OCD?

Answer 65

SSRIs increase serotonin levels by preventing its reuptake at the presynaptic neuron. This increases serotonin availability in the synaptic cleft, enhancing transmission to the postsynaptic neuron and reducing OCD symptoms.

Question 66

What is a strength of SSRIs for treating OCD?

Answer 66

Soomro et al. (2009) conducted a meta-analysis and found that SSRIs were significantly more effective than placebos in reducing OCD symptoms, supporting the effectiveness of biological treatments.

Question 67

What is a potential alternative treatment for OCD?

Answer 67

Psilocybin, a psychedelic compound, has shown promise in reducing OCD symptoms. Allen et al. (2023) found that 80% of participants experienced a 25% symptom reduction after 8 weeks, with 40% achieving remission. However, the study had a small sample size, so further research is needed.

Question 68

What is a limitation of biological treatments for OCD?

Answer 68

They treat symptoms rather than the root cause. Cromer et al. (2007) found that 50% of OCD patients had past trauma, suggesting that environmental factors contribute to OCD. Drug treatments like SSRIs may only provide temporary relief rather than addressing underlying causes.

Question 69

Why are biological treatments for OCD criticised for side effects?

Answer 69

While effective, SSRIs can cause headaches, nausea, and insomnia (Soomro et al., 2009). Compared to CBT, which has no physical side effects, drug treatments may be a less desirable option for some patients.