paper 2 Flashcards
What’s the main assumption of psychodynamic approach
A perception that describes unconscious forces that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour
What did Freud suggest?
Most of our mind is made up of unconscious
The unconscious contains suppressed memories, these can be excesses through dreams or parapraxes
The preconceived contains thoughts and memories which aren’t currently in conscious awareness but can be excesses if desired
Describe the ID
Is entirely selfish and operates on the pleasure principle
Is present at birth
Entirely unconscious
Describe the EGO
Mediator between the ID and SUPEREGO
Develops at the age of 2
It prevents conflict through regression, denial or displacement
describe SUPEREGO
It our internalised sense of right and wrong
Formed at 5
Describe the oral stage and the consequence
0-1
Pleasure in the mouth, mothers breast is the desired object
Oral fixation- smoking sarcasm nail biting
Describe anal stage and consequence
Pleasure is the anus, with holding or expelling po
Retentive- perfectionist
Exclusive- thoughtless
Describe the phallic stage and consequence
Pleasure is the genitals, Oedipus complex
Phallic personality- reckless narcissistic homosexual
Describe the Oedipus complex
In the phallic stage boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mum and hatred towards their dad
Fearing castration, boys resent their feelings and identity with their father, taking on his gender role and moral values
describe the Electra complex
Girls experience penis envy, they desire their father and hate their mother.
Girls overcome this by replacing their feelings with a desire for a baby
Evaluate the psychodynamic approach
Strength - - -
Many people who experience psychological disturbances do recollect childhood traumas (face validity)
By developing a method of treatment, Freud encouraged a more optimistic view regarding psychological distress. Treatment?
Weakness - - -
Lacks scientific validity therefore isn’t falsifiable
Freud used a biased sample of middle-class Viennese women 20-44 who had emotional problems, therefore can’t generalise
He only studied one child to developed his theory on psychosexual development
Very deterministic
What are the main assumptions of the humanistic approach
An approach to understanding behaviour that empathises the importance of subjective experience and each persons capacity for self-determination
Define free wills
The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external factors
Define self actualisation
Desire to grow psychologically and fulfil ones full potential. All 4 levels of mols lows hierarchy must be met to achieve this
What’s Moscow’s hierarchy of needs
Self actualisation Self esteem Love and belongingness Safe and security Psychological needs
What did Rogers argue
He argued that for personal growth to be achieved an individuals self concept must have congruence with their ideal self
We behave as we do because of the way we perceive the situation
Why would someone need client-centred therapy and what is it
Client-centred therapy aims to reduce the gap between self concept and ideal self in order to reach self actualisation
In therapy the client is responsible for improving their life, the client is consciously and rationally decides for themselves what is wrong and what should be done about it
Therapist hope to help their client to achieve personal growth and eventually self-actualise
Evaluate humanistic approach
Strength- - -
Real life application- therapy
Shifted the focus of behaviour to the individual rather than unconscious/genes
More holistic information into behaviour therefore more valid
Weakness- - -
Ignores biology
Unscientific- subjective concept
Ethnocentric ( biased towards western culture)
Their belief on free will is opposite to the deterministic laws of science
What’s the main assumption of the rcognitive approach
Behaviour is hard on internal mental process e.g. memory and perception. These processes can’t be observed so cognitive psychology is a study them indirectly by making inferences
Describe schema
Is a package of information developed through experiences
They act as a mental frame work for the interpretation of incoming information
Enables us to process information quickly and creates mental shortcuts that prevent us getting overwhelmed
Describe Theoretical and computer models
It is one way to study mental processes, it suggests that info flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include input storage and retrieval msmm
Computer models compares the mind to a computer by suggesting there are similarities in the way info is processed.
These modes use the concept of coding (turning info into useable format) and the use of stores to hold info
Describe cognitive neuroscience
Is the study of the influence of brain structures on mental process in advanced in brain imaging techniques such as fMRI
The focus on cognitive neuroscience has expended to include the use of computer generated models that read the brain
What are the advantages of advances in cognitive neuroscience?
Scientists have been ale to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes
Scanning techniques are also useful in the neurological basis of mental disorders
Evaluate the cognitive approach
Strength- - -
Employs highly controlled and rigorous methods of study, this involves lab experiments to produce reliable objective data
Is the most dominant approach in psychology today and has been applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical contexts
Weakness- - -
Has a narrow focus on mental process, logical rather than emotional
Reductionism
Comparisons with computers the mind is infinitely more powerful and flexible than most advanced computer
What is the main assumption of the biological approach
Certain behaviours such as intelligence are genetically determined as evident from twin and adoption studies
What are genes, genotype and phenotype
Genes- set of instructions that’ll determine your phenotype
Genotype- set of genes you inherit at conception. They only determine the potential for a characteristic to develop
Phenotype- the observable characteristics. Genes and environment
Describe what monozygotic and dizygotic twins are
Mz identical twins 100%
Dz non-identical twins 50%
Describe the theory of evolution and behaviour
As mammals we have evolved over time to adapt to our environment, however our biological basis is still very similar to the original human beings. These biological structures have a direct affect on our behaviour
Evolutionary psychologists believe that memory attachment domestic abuse and adultery have evolved in our species because they have adaptive advantages
What does biological structure and neurochemistry focus on?
Focuses on neurotransmitters which are essential for transmission of nerve impulses across the synapse and therefore involves in all aspects of behaviour
In relation to the biological approach how does cocaine and depression affect your behaviour
Cocaine acts as a synapse blocking the trip take of dopamine back into the pre-synaptic neuron. This temporarily makes more dopamine in the synaptic gap which causes a euphoric rush, however eventually dopamine becomes depleted and insufficient amounts are repressed. This leads to a loss.
Disruption of neurotransmitters is implicated in OCD and depression. Depression is characterised as having an imbalancement of serotonin dopamine and noradrenaline. Treatment for depression includes SSRIs which balance levels of neurotransmitters
Evaluate biological approach
Strength- - -Provides clear predictions that can be scientifically tested and supported with evidence Real life application-therapy Weakness- - - Ignores meditational processes Too deterministic Reductionist
Describe the main assumptions of the behaviourist approach
All behaviour is learnt through association and reward and punishment
what’s the difference between classical and operant conditioning
Classical- learning through association
Operant- learning through reward and punishment
Describe positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment
Positive reinforcement- reviving a rewards for good behaviour
Punishment l- being punished for bad behaviour
Negative reinforcement- avoiding something unpleasant
Describe pavlovs experiment
Dog bell stimulus salvation
Describe skinners experiment
Skinner boxes
Pigeons
Rats
Evaluate the behaviourist approach
Strength- - -
Real life application, the principle of conditioning has been applied to a wide range of real world behaviours e.g. prisons and school
Scientific credibility, replicable
Weakness- - -
Ethical, the animals were exposed to harmful conditions
Deterministic, behaviourists see all behaviour as being determined by past experiences that have been conditioned
Skinner suggests that everything we do it sum total of our reinforcement history, ignoring influence of free will
What’s the main assumption of SLT
we learn through observing behaviour of a model and the outcomes of those behaviours
Describe vicarious reinforcement
For direct learning the individual overages the behaviour of others, the individual may imitate the behaviour depending on the consequence
The learner most important observes the consequence of behaviour
Describe the 4 meditational processes
SLT is the bridge between cognitive and learning theory
Attention- extent to which we notice
Retention- how well we remember it
Motor reproduction- our ability to perform
Motivation- depending on consequence
Describe identification
People are more likely to imitate behaviour of people of whom they identify with (role model) I
A person is a role model if they have similar characteristics, are attractive or have a higher status.
Role models may not be physically present
Describe bandura et al study
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
Evaluate SLT
strength- - -
High internal validity because there a clear chase and effect relationship
Weakness - - -
Ethical, exposing children to aggressive behaviour
What does lateralisation of function mean?
Refers to the dominant side of one hemisphere of the brain for particular function
What is the right and left side dominant in?
Right- artistic emotional musical
Left- linguistic scientific rational
What are split brain patients?
Patients who have had their corpus callusom severed
Who’s roger sperry
He conducted an experiment to support brain lateralisation. The Ps were asked to focus on the centre of a screen and then words/pictures would appear on either the left or right side
In split brain studies what are the results of ‘describe what you see’
Pictures shown to their right visual field could easily describe it. However if it is shown to their left visual field, they couldn’t. This is because language is processed in your left hemisphere r
In split brain studies what are the results of recognition by touch?
Although ps couldn’t describe the object they were able to select a matching object using their left hand. Therefore they could understand what the object was using their right hemisphere
In split brain studies what are the results of composite words
If 2 words appeared on the screen in each visual field e.g. key ring the P would write with their left hand key and say the word ring. This is because the right hemisphere is superiority in drawing
In split brain studies what are the results of matching faces
The right hemisphere appeared dominant in recognising faces. The Ps ere asked to match faces from a series of other faces, the picture processed by the right hemisphere was consistently selected, whilst in the left hemisphere it was ignored
Describe localisation of brain function
Specific areas of the brain control different functions
How was Broca involved in localisation of brain functions?
Broca reviewed Ps with brain damage and concluded that damage to the left hemisphere effected their speech
Broca’s area seems to control the ability to produce speech and damage
What does motor aphasia mean?
The ability to produce speech and damage
How was wernicke involved in localisation of brain function
wernicke reporter that injury to the left temporal lobe caused problems understanding speech, including ones own speech
What does receptive aphasia mean
The ability to understand speech
What is each part of the brain responsible for?
Broca’s area- ability to produce speech
Motor area- controls movement
Somatosensory- processes sensory info
Wernickes area- processes understanding speech
Visual area- processes visual information
Auditory area- analysis of speech
Describe the structure of the brain
Broca’s Motor Somatosensory Wernickes Visual Auditory
Give 2 strengths of the localisation of brain function
Peterson et al used brain scan to demonstrate how Wernicke’s area was active during listening tasks and Broca’s area during reading tasks
Dougherty et al studied 44 OCD patients who had undergone cingulotomy. after 37 weeks a 3rd had met the criteria for a successful response, suggesting that mental disorders are localized.
give 2 weaknesses of the localisation of brain function
brain plasticity- when the brain is damaged brains are able ti compensate by other parts of the brain taking over and performing that function
Lashley suggests that higher cognitive functions aren’t localized, he removed areas of the cortex in rats that were learning mazes, no areas proved to be more important when learning the maze
give 3 weaknesses of hemispherical lateralisation and split brain research
sperry’s study involved 11 epilepsy Ps, which means it lacks population validity and is unrepresentative with such a small sample
Zaflarki et al found that language becomes more lateralised to the left hemisphere in children and adolescents but after 25 lateralisation decreased with each decade of life, which questions where everyone has one dominant hemisphere and if this changes with age
Turk et al discovered a p with a damage left hemipshere but developed the ability to speak in the right hemisphere. this suggests that perhaps lateralisation isnt fixed and the brain can adapt following certain damages to certain areas
give a strength of hemispherical lateralisation and split brain research
Sperry’s research into split brain phenomenon has produced an impressive body of research
describe the 3 biological rhythms and give an example of each
circadian rhythms- once every 24 hours, sleep/wake and body temp
untradian rhythms- more than once every 24 hours
heartbeat
infradian rhythms- over a greater period
mentrual cycle
evaluate circadian rhythms
practical application within the knowledge of sleep disruption. Night-workers experience a reduced conc at 6am meaning more mistakes are likely to occur
drug treatment, research into circadian rhythms reveal the peak times that drugs will be best absorbed into the body. this led to guidelines.
case studies and small samples, meaning the Ps arent representative which limits generalisability
whos Bolvin et al
he suggested the relationship between shift work and health, shift workers are 3x more likely to develop heart diesease
evaluate ultradian rhythms
the BRAC describes how our levels of alertness goes through peaks and troughs, each cycle lasts 90 minutes. this idea has face validity because is appears that most people find it difficult to conc for more than 1 hr 30 mins
Dement and Kleitman monitored the sleep patterns of 9 adults in a sleep lab. brain activity was recorded on an EEG. REM activity was highly correlated with the experience of dreaming, brain activity varied depending on how vivid the dream was, replications of this study show simular findings
evaluate infradian rhythms
Russels et al studied the effect of other peoples hormones on the menstrual cycle, a daily sample of sweat from one group of women and rubbed on the upper lip of another group of women. these women were kept separate during the duration of the study. they became syncronised with their sweat doner
however schank argued that this would have evolutionary flaws to cycle at the same time. also methological flaws, various things can influence the menstruak cycle.
SAD occurs during winter months. exposure to light suppresses melatonin, darkness increases it. SAD ps have high levels of melatonin which could suppress serotonin and dopamine
whats the difference between endogenous pacemakers and external zeitgebers?
endogenous pacemakers- your bodily clock which regulates bodily rhythms
external zeitgebers- external influences (e.g. light)
evaluate endogenous pacemakers and external zeitgebers on the control of circadian rhythms animal studies stephan and zucker damiola DeCoursey miles
animals maintained a daily rhythmic cycle of 24 hours when kept under constant light conditions, which suggests that circaidna rhythms are controlled by endogenous pacemakers. HOWEVER pacemakers didnt maintain this cycle perfectly, which means zeitgebers must play a role.
stephen and zucker investigated the effects of damage to the SCN on circadian rhythms. rats housed in labs with 12 hours of light followed by 12 hours of dark showed circadian rhythms in terms of behaviour. damage to the SCN eliminated these behaviours. they concluded that the SCN is one of the key pacemakers controlling circadian rhythms.
Damiola demonstrated how changing feeding patterns in mice altered their circadian rhythm of cells in the liver whilst leaving the SCN unaffected, suggesting there are other more complex factors to the sleep wake cycle
DeCoursey animals were exposed to risk when they returned to natural habitate.
miles external cues may be overstated. a blind man from birth had a circadian rhythm of 24.9 hours. despite social cues his sleepwake cycle couldnt be adjusted.
what is the main endogenous pacemakers?
the superchiasmatic nuclei (SCN) located n the hypothalamus
evaluate endogenous pacemakers and external zeitgebers in isolated studies
rhythmic variation of body temp and sleep wake cycle are closely linked. Shiffre spent 6 months in an underground cave with no natural cave. his body temp and sleep wake cycle was monitored. his sleepwake cycle extended to 25-32 hours. his body temp was more stable which resulted in his sleep wake cycle becoming synchronized. this study shows that circadian rhythms remain even in the absence of external factors. however the rhythm wasnt perfect
describe the role of the pineal gland
less light detected in receptors of retina
neurons connect retina to SCN, then the SCN to pineal gland
pineal gland converts serotonin into melatonin
melatonin is secreted and acts on organs and glands, this makes us sleepy
release of melatonin is suppressed as the amount of light increases
name the 5 different sampling methods and give a strength and weakness
random sampling S- high generalization W- not representative opportunity sampling- S- ease of formation W- unrepresentative volunteer S- less chance of sabotage W- unrepresentative systematic S- generalisation W- unrepresentative stratified S- representative W- time consuming
describe systematic and stratified sampling
systematic- taking every Nth person from a list
stratified- involves dividing a population into characteristics important for the research, then the population is randomly sampled within each category
whats a pilot study and whats the purpose
is a practice/small scale study conducted before the main study
it allows the researcher to try out the study with a few participants so that adjustments can be made before the main study so saving time and money
whats the difference between aims and hypothesis’s
aim- precise statement of why a study is taking place, includes whats being studied and what its trying to achieve
hypothesis- a precise prediction of what is expected to happen
what are the 4 different types of hypothesis’s
null hypothesis- the hypothesis of no difference. any difference will be due to chance
experimental hypothesis- predicts that the difference in the DV will be beyond the boundaries of chance
directional hypothesis- predicts the direction of the results
non-directional hypothesis- predicts there will be a difference but doesn’t predict the difference
what are the 3 experimental designs
independent groups- use different Ps in each conditions, so Ps only do one condition
matched pairs- ps are matched to a characteristic important for a particular study
repeated measures- Ps are tested in all conditions
give strengths and weaknesses of experimental designs
dependent groups S- no order/demand characteristics W- more ps needed, group differences could be due to the Ps individual differences rather than the IV manipulating the DV matched pairs S- no order/demand effects W- more Ps needed, time consuming by matching pairs repeated measures S- fewer Ps needed, W- order/demand effects
what are the 3 different extraneous varibales
situational variables- environment (noise/temp)
participant variable- how each individual differs from one another and how this affects the results (mood/IQ)
experimental effect- experimenter unconsciously gives away the aims of the study
whats a confounding variable
are variables that will effect the results of the study which ant be controlled
what does operationalising a study mean
how you will define and measure a specific varibale
what are the three observational designs
behavioural categories- psychologists have to decide what specific behaviours are going to be examined. this involves breaking target behaviour into characteristics that can be measures
event sampling- involves counting the number of times certain behaviours occur while observing
Time sampling- method of sampling behaviour in an observation study and is where an observer records behaviour at prescribed intervals. For example, every 10 seconds.
what are the 4 types of experimental methods
lab- artificially set up, the researcher deliberately manipulates the DV
field- researcher deliberately manipulates the IV and measures the DV, Ps usually do an everyday task in an everyday environment
naturalistic- the IV is changed by a natural occurrence in the Ps natural environment, the researcher observes the effect on the DV
Quasi- an IV that is based on existing differences
give the strength and weaknesses of experimental methods
lab- S internal validity W- ecological validity field S- ecological validity W- extraneous varibales naturalists S- ecological validity W- internal validity quasi S- internal validity W- cant be randomly allocated
what is content analysis
a method used to analysis qualitative data. most commonly used to transform qualitative data into quantitative data. the researcher will use ‘coding unit’ e.g. how many positive or negative words used
evaluate content analysis
easy and not too time consuming
as it only describes data it cannot extract any deeper meaning or explanation for data patterns
what is a case study, evaluate it
are in depth investigation of a single person, group, event or community
S- provides detailed (rich qualitative) data
provides insight for further research
permitting investigation of other wise impractical/unethical ideas
W- difficult to replicate, time consuming, cant generalise
evaluate correlational studies
S- allows predictions to be made
W- we cannot say that one co-variable has caused the other, low internal validity
evaluate the two self report techniques
questionnaires- can collect large amounts of standardized data quickly
lacks flexibility
interview- very useful in generating large amounts of detail
affected by interview bias depending on what questions were asked.
what are the two different types of interviw
structured- predetermined questions
unstructured- starts with general questions but then adapts their questions depending on on Ps response
describe and evaluate open and closed questions
open questions- respondents are free to answer in any way they wish
S- rich in depth W- difficult to analysis
closed questions- respondents are restricted to ‘yes’ ‘no’ answers.
S- easy to analysis W-lacks depth and detail
what are the 6 types of observational techniques
naturalistic- observation of naturally occurring events
controlled- recording within a set up environment
participant- observers becoming actively involved in the situation
non-participant- observers not being actively involbed
covert- Ps remain aware theyre being studied
overt- Ps arent aware theyre being studied
describe the role of peer review and the 3 different types
it is a scrutiny by experts of research papers to determine scientific validity. they have 4 options, accept it unconditionally, accept it so long as the researcher improves certain aspects, reject it but give suggestions or reject it
single blind review- names of the reviews not being revealed to the reseacher
double blind review- both the reviewer and the researcher being anonymous
open review- the researcher and the reviewer are known to each other
what are the implications on the economy that psychology research has
psychologists create practical applications used in everyday life for the betterment of society. therefore research contributes to society in a substantial way such as creation of effective therapies for mental disorders. effectiveness therapies make huge savings in financial costs because it allows people to return to work
what are the 4 types of control and describe them
random allocation- refers to how an experimenter divides Ps into each experimental condition to reduce any bias when concerning individual differences
counterbalancing- is a techniques used to deal with order effects when using a repeated measure design. it involves the Ps being divided in half, with one completing the 2 conditions in one order and the other half completing in reverse order. this in affect cancels out order effects.
randomisation- used in the presentation of an experiment to avoid any systematic errors that might occur as a result of the order in which the trial takes place
standardisation- it ensures that conditions are the same for all Ps, this involves standardised instruction
whats the purpose of the British ethical guidelines
its purpose is to protect the Ps, the reputation of psychology and the psychologyists themselves
how to you overcome each ethical issue
informed consent- retrospective consent by which u ask for the consent in the debrief. Ps could be given a consent letter that details everything that might effect their decision to take place
deception- in the debrief Ps should be told the true aim of the study
protection of Ps- should be assured their behaviour is normal and should be offered counselling
confidentiality- anonymity should be maintained. Ps have the right to withdraw any of the info concluded
right to withdraw- ps should be told at the start of the study that they have the right to withdraw themselves and any info obtained at any point in the study
What is the divisions on the nervous system
CNS. PNS
ANS. SNS
SYNS. PNS
What is the function of the Peripheral NS
Carries messages to and from the CNS
What’s the function of the automatic NS
Controls involuntary muscles
What’s the functions of the somatic NS
Controls voluntary muscles
What’s the function of the synaptic NS
Arouses the body
What’s the function of the parasympathetic NS
Calms down the bus to conserve and maintain energy
What’s the function of different neurones
Motor- carries signals from the CNS to the effector
Relay- carries signals from one areas of the CNS to another
Sensory- carries signals from receptor to CNS
What are the different structures of the neuron
Dendrite
Axon
Myelin sheath
Cell body
What is synaptic transmission
Process by which one neuron communicates with another
The pre-synaptic neuron sends the neurotransmitter
The post-synaptic neuron receives the neurotransmitters
The neurotransmitters cross the synapse
Describe inhibitory effects and excitatory effects
Inhibitory effects- neurotransmitters make neurons negatively charged therefore less likely for the presynaptic to fire (serotonin)
Excitatory effects-
Positive charge which makes post synaptic likely to fire (adrenaline)
Describe the endocrine system
Has a series of glands which release chemicals through the body
Hormones are slower than neurotransmitters but are longer lasting
The pituritary gland is the ‘master gland’ which is stimulated by the hypothalamus. It releases hormones
Define and describe the fight or flight response
‘The bodily response to percieved threats
1 once the threat has been detected the sympathetic NS will activates
2 it communicates to the adrenal glad to release adrenaline into the blood stream and increase heart rate
3 if the threat passes the parasympathetic NS activates to bring your body back to normal
What does plasticity mean?
Refers to the brains ability to change and adapt after experience. The brain continues to create new neural pathways in response to changing experience
What doe functional recovery refer to
The transfer of functions from a damaged areas of the brain after trauma to other undamaged area
Define neuronal unmasking in terms of plasticity and function revovery
Where the dominant synapse opens connections to compensate for a nearby damaged area of the brain. This allows new connections in the brain to be activated, this recovering any damage occurring in specific regions
How does KUHNs research support plasticity
He found a significant increase in grey matter in various regions of the brain after Ps played video games for 30 mins a day over a 2 month period, supports the idea that the brain can change and adapt after experience
How does DAVIDSONs research support brain plasticity
Found evidence of permanent change in the brain due to prolonged meditation, Buddhists monks had a much greater activation of gamma waves.
These studies highlight the idea of Brian plasticity and the brains ability to adapt
How does TAJIRI study support brain plasticity and functional recovery
Stem cell aiding recovery from brain damage. Used rats with brain damage. They reviewed stem cell implants and after 3 months they showed development of neuron-like cells. Supports functional recovery
How does ELBERTs research support plasticity and functional recovery
Demonstrated functional recovery deteriorates with age. The capacity for neural reorganisation is much greater in child new than adults meaning that neural regeneration is less effective in older brains. Therefore we must consider individual differences
What are the 4 ways of studying the brain
FMRI
EEG electroencephalogram
ERP event related potential
post modern
Describe and evaluate fMRI
Measures blood flow when a person performs a tasks.
Neurons in the brain that are more active during a task use the most energy
W temporal resolution
S spatial resolution
S non invasive
Describe and evaluate EEG
Measures electrical activity using electrodes attached to the scalp
S non invasive
S temporal resolution
S cheaper
W uncomfortable, making unrepresentative readings
W spatial resolution
W electrical impulses are detected in several regions of the brain. Therefore making it difficult to pinpoint the exact location
Describe and evaluate ERP
Similar to EEG expect it the researcher measures the activity in the brain when a P is presented with a stimuli e.g sound
S more experimental robust as it can eliminate extraneous neural activity, something EEG can’t do
S non invasive
S cheaper
S temporal resolution
W spatial resolution
W uncomfortable making unrepresentative reading
Describe and evaluate post-mortem
Study the physical brain of a person who displayed particular behaviours when alive
S contributed to the understanding of disorders, IVEESON examined schizophrenia ps and found they all had high conc of dopamine
W ethical issues, informed content. Many post-mortems are carried out on ps org severe psychological deficits who would be unable to provide fully informed consent
What are the 3 levels of measurement, describe them
NOMINAL simplest type of data, labels/name e.g. eye colour
ORDINAL (ranking) made up data by people, based on opinion, is subjective e.g rate your meal 1-10
INTERVAL (ranking) ‘real data’ based on numerical scares that include units of equal defined size e.g number of words on a test (numbers with equal defined intervals)
Describe and evaluate measures of central tendency
Mean
S takes all data into consideration because it is the most sensitive
W less useful if some scores are skewed
Median
S not affected by extreme scores
W unrepresentative in small samples
Mode
S less prone to distortion by extreme scores
W doesn’t take all scores into consideration
Describe and evaluate measures of disperation
Range
S easy to work out and takes account of extreme values
W can be distorted by extreme scores and doesn’t show whether the data is spread of clustered
Standard deviation- the mean distance of the scores in a set of data
Large SD widely spread, mean is not representing of the data
Small SD closely spread, representative
S more sensitive than range
W harder to calculate
Define primary and secondary date
Refers to data that’s originally collected specifically towards a research aim, which hasn’t been published before
Refers to data originally collected towards another research aim which has been published before
What is meta analysis
Is a statical technique for combing the findings of several studies of a certain research aim. As it it involves combining lots of smaller studies into the larger study
Define and evaluate qualitative data and quantitive data
Literal- s high in reliability, easy to analyse
W lacks details, collected in artificial setting
Numerical- s rich in detail, collected in real life setting
W low in reliability
Define correlation, inferential statistics and correlation coefficient
Measures the relationship between 2 variables
Can be used to arrive at a correlation coefficient which indicates the strength and type of correlation
Number generated between -1 and +1
+1 perfect positive correlation
0 no relationship
-1 perfect negative correlation
Evaluate correlation
S offers precise info on the degree of the relationship
W can’t determine whether the IV caused the DV, doesn’t mean they relate
what is the sign test? and when is it used?
a statistical test of difference that allows a researcher to determine the significance of their investigation
repeated measures where data is nominal
what are the two factors which effect your choice of inferential stats
experimental design and type of data
whats the aim of inferential stats
to test whether the difference is significant or due to chance
whats the difference between type 1 and type 2 error
1 when you say the difference is significant but then its later found that its just due to chance
2 when you say the difference isnt significant byt then its found that it is significant
what does <0,05 mean
theres at least 5% probability that the results was due to chance
what are the 3 types of external validity
population- extent to which research findings can be generalised to other people
ecological- extent to which findings can be generalised to other setting
temporal- extent to which past findings can be applicable to today
how do you improve internal validity
remove all extraneous variables which increase levels of control
designs which reduce demand characteristics and investigator effects also increase validity
how do you assess internal validity
using face validity- which involves a person with expertise assessing whether the test is measuring what it is set out to measure
concurrent validity- involves obtaining 2 results from 2 tests measuring the same IV. one of the tests should be well established. if the Ps have similar results then concurrent validity is achieved
how do you assess researcher reliability
intra researcher “ the researcher administers a procedure in the same way with each P” it is assessed by measuring the extent to which a researcher produces similar results when observing a similar situation. correlate the data to establish the degree of similarity
inter observer- “ in observations researcher reliability is measured in the extent to which different observers agree on what theyve observed” assessed and achieved if 2 reseachers carry out the same procedure or are constant in their observations. if theres a positive correlation that it is achieved
how do you improve reseacher reliability
conduct a piolet study
standardised instructions
operationalise definitions of keyterms
How does maguire support plasticity
Increased grey matter was found in the brains of taxi drivers compared with controls in two brain regions, the right and left hippocampi. The increased volume was found in the hippocampus.
What are the 2 different types of reliability
External reliability- same results should be apparent everything when recreating the experiment
Internal reliability- how well a measure is consistent within itself
How do you assess internal reliability
Split-half methods
Comparing the results of one test with the results from another half e.g. first half and second half. If the 2 holds produce similar results then it has internal reliability
How do you asses external reliability
Test re-test
Giving Ps the same test over 2 separate occasions, the time difference has to be significant
If there’s a significant positive correlation then the reliability is high
Define inter-rater reliability
The degree to which different raters five consistent estimates of the same behaviour
How do you improve external reliability
Training observers
Behaviour categories are objectively operationalised
What are the 6 things to consider when creating a report for an investigation
Abstract- brief summary of the whole study
Introduction- states what the researcher intends to investigate
Method- description of what the researcher did
Results- what the researchers found, includes graphs/tables and inferential tables
Discussion- various explanations for why they found the results they did
References- alphabetical account of sources
Features of science- what is the empirical approach
Gaining knowledge through experience, using observation and experiment to rate facts and evidence
Features of science- define objectivity
Researchers are not influenced by personal feelings
Features of science- define falsifiability
A statement, hypothesis or theory has falsifiability if there’s a possibility of showing it to be false
Features of science- define replicability
Research can be replicated with similar findings
Features of science- define paradigm shift
It is an important change in the basic concepts and experiment practice of scientific discipline eg the world was flat
Features of science- what is theory construction
Is a proposed explanation for the causes of behaviourX needs too be logically organise
Features of science- what is hypothesis testing
To test the results to see if you have meaningful results
What’s the difference between related and unrelated date for inferential statistics
Related- matched pairs and repeated measures
Unrelated- independent groups
Inferential stats- what is nominal data + unrelated design in an experiment
Chi-squared
What is ordinal data + unrelated design in an experiment
Unrelated T test
What is ordinal data + related design in an experiment
Related T-test
What is interval data + unrelated design in an experiment
Mann-Whitney U
What is internal data + related design in an experiment
Wilcoxon T
What is ordinal data and related design in a correlation study
Pearsons rho
What is interval data with a related design for a correlational study
Spearmanns rho
Describe Wundts role in the development of psychology
Regarded as the father of psychology
He’s important because he separated psychology from philosophy by analysing the mind in a more structured way with the empathises being in objective measurement and control
He wanted to study the structure of the mind using introspective
He believed in reductionism that the consciousness could be broken down to its basic elements
Conscious mental states could be scientifically studied using introspection
Introspection was a highly practised form of self-examination. He trained students to make observations that were biased by personal intersection or previous experience and used to result to develop a theory of conscious thought
Define global aphasia regarding localisation of brain function
Inability to understand or produce speech
According to the psychodynamic approach, what influences behaviour
Behaviour is determined by internal forces like your unconscious mind
Freud suggests that the key to understanding behaviour is through your childhood and your subconscious
Behaviour is determined from childhood in the essence that if a child is deprived of immediate gratification of their age-dependent desire there will be consequences in later life
Describe Stephan and zucker
Investigated the effort of damages to the SCN. rats housed in 12 hours of light and dark showed cardiac rhythms in terms of behaviour, damage to SCN elongated their behaviours. SCN is a key pacemaker
Describe damiola study
Demonstrated how changing feeding patterns in mice altered the circadian rhythms of the cells in the liver
Describe miles study
Blind man has circadian rhythm of 24.9 hours despite social cues. His sleep-wake cycle couldn’t be adjusted and he had to be sedatives. Suggesting exogenous zeitgebers are over rated
Describe dement and kleitmans study
Monitored sleep patterns of 9 adults. R.E.M. activity was highly correlated with dreaming
Describe lashleys study
Suggested that higher cognitive functions aren’t localised but distributed holistically. He removed areas of the cortex in mice learning mazes, no area proved more significant
Describe peterson et al study
Brain scans to demonstrate wenickes area being active during listening talks and broca’s in reading
Describe Dougherty study
44 OCD ps showed improvmenr after under going cingulotomy suggest mental disorders are localised
Describe zaflarki study
Language lateralisation describes after 25 wit each decade of life. Questioning whether lateralisation changes over time
Describe Turk et als study
Discovered Ps with damaged legit hemisphere developed the ability to speak in their right hemisphere, suggesting lateralisation isn’t fixed
What is thematic analysis
Another version of content analysis
Once data is transcribed, data is reviewed repeatedly so that the researcher can identify trends in the meaning conveyed by language.
The themes identified can be used to support or challenge existing theories, with specific examples of data or quotes being used as supporting evidence.
Ultradian rhythms- stages of sleep
Stages 1&2- light sleep where the person is easily woken. Brain waves become slower and more rhythmic
Stages 3&4- deep sleep or slow wave sleep where it’s difficult to rouse someone at this point
Stages 5&REM- body is paralysed and brain activity speeds up. R.E.M. stnds for rapid eye movement to denote the fast activity of the eyes. Highly correlated with dreaming
