Paper 1 Section A Flashcards
Culture
Whole system of behaviour and beliefs of a society or a group
Values
Beliefs and ideas that society sees as important
Norms
These are expected/normal patterns of behaviour
E.g wearing clothes in public
Hamar tribe study
Has a culture rich in ceremony and ritual
To reach adulthood hamar males must perform a ceremony where they leap onto backs of cattle
Women are whipped before ceremony to prove their devotion to men
Mead study
American sociologist who studied tribal cultures in Samoa and New Guinea
Studied male and female behaviour and gender roles but they differed in different tribes
One tribe all genders were gentle but in another both genders were violent
Roles were opposite to what was a expected in US or UK
Cultural diversity
The differences and variety of cultures found in societies
Intercultural diversity
Diversity seen between cultures
Intracultural diversity
Diversity seen within cultures
Subcultures
A culture within a culture
Smaller grouping of people who share distinctive norms and values within a wider culture
Culture hybridity
Cultures merging
E.g food
Immigrants mix aspects of their parents culture with aspects of British culture
High culture
Refers to products/activities that are seen as a very high status
E.g theatre, opera and ballet
This culture is superior to other forms of culture and is enjoyed by those of a higher social class
Popular culture
Products/activities enjoyed by the majority of the population
E.g watching to, cinema, playing football, reading magazines
Some see this as inferior to high culture known as mass culture
Consumer culture
Revolves around the consumption of goods and activities
E.g shopping is the main focus
People are obsessed with branded goods to try and gain status this is encouraged by the media
Global culture
Growing trend of cultural products and activities becoming universal
E.g brands, food, films and other cultural products are identical across many different countries
This is linked to globalisation
E.g brands such as Microsoft, Nike, Coca Cola are easily recognisable across the world
What is primary socialisation
Children learn norms and values from family in the first 5 years of life
How does a child learn
Imitation, copying, trial and error to learn right and wrong
Parents reward through positive sanctions but if a child misbehaves they receive negative sanctions such as telling off so children know how to behave and become a human
What happenes is primary socialisation does not happen
Unable to interact and socialise with others
Nurture
Upbringing
E.g primary socialisation
Nurture debate examples
Feral children
- Isabel the chicken girl- left in chicken coop since birth expressed emotion by beating arms and drumming feet
- Oxana Malaya- left in kennel with dogs and she adapted a dog like behaviour e.g barking
- Genie- shut in a room on her own has no human interaction until she was 13
Nature debate examples
- twin studies- twins separated at birth lived completely different lifestyles one was raised in Germany another was raised in Caribbean but when met both had similar likes and dislikes, personality and temperament
- Bruce Reiner- Bruce was circumcised and dr money said that Bruce could be raised a girl. Bruce was brought up at feminine and changed name to Brenda. At age 13 Brenda was unhappy and truth was revealed and Brenda decided to live male again
Secondary socialisation
Process of learring how to act outside of the home and family
E.g education, media, religion, workplace, peer group
Secondary socialisation peer groups
Those similar age e.g friends
A child will learn what is acceptable behaviour from peers as they want to conform (fit in)
Peers can be more influential than parents
Hierarchies is when there is a leader of the followers
Peer groups can also cause rebellion
Peer groups examples
Skelton and Francis said that play was gendered
E.g boys dominated the play ground and girl took part in separate activities such as skipping
Sue lees looked at the pressure on teenage girls
Secondary socialisation education
Everyone learns the formal curriculum but sociologists argue we also learn an informal curriculum which is the norms and values learnt at school but outside of lessons e.g sanctions for those who disobey, achievement awards
Teachers are the main influence as the way they interact with children pass on the norms
Education examples
Marxists Bowles and gintis agreed that hidden (informal) curriculum exists
They argue that the education system brainwashes children into obedience and conformity. Pupils are taught to accept their place in society which will then be mirrored in the workplace
Secondary socialisation media
Media has exploded with internet, tv, phones, films
Media represents different groups in different ways e.g women are stereotyped this can affect the way the judge women
A concern is that their is so much violence in media and this can cause crimes
Media has created consumer culture where we are encouraged to buy even if we can’t afford
Media examples
Sociologist Mulvey uses the concept of male gaze. This is where the camera in films eye up female characters to encouatge viewers to see them for their bodies
Sociologist Young says that media is responsible for crimes as it has created a bulimic society meaning those with little money are even hooked on designer brands such as Nike, Gucci
Secondary socialisation religion
Uk society is becoming secular less religious
However many of our laws, morals and values are based on Christian religion
Topics such as homosexuality and abortion are influenced by religious views
Religion examples
Modood and berthoud did a survey and said that 67% of Pakistani saw religion as important compared to 5% of white British
Secondary socialisation workplace
Socialisation for adults known as re socialisation which is when a new set of values are learnt at the job
Can be formal e.g dress code or informal e.g learning what is acceptable
Workplace examples
Waddington 1999 used the term canteen culture which is where people who work somewhere will be socialised to accept particular norms and values e.g language and behaviour in that particular workplace
However canteen culture can lead to labelling and negative stereotypes
What is formal social control
Where our behaviour is controlled through organisations that exist to enforce order
Examples of formal social control
Police
Courts
Criminal justice system
Government
Military
Sanctions from formal social control
Warnings from the police
Sentences in court
Dismissal from work
Exclusion from school
Is formal social control explicit or implicit
Explicit and obvious
It is clear when you receive a sanction through legal means as you go to court
What do functionalists say about formal social control
It’s a good thing as it helps keep a value consensus and ensures that everyone follows the same rules, norms and values
What do Marxists say about formal social control
Believe it is another way for the lower classes to be exploited
What is informal social control
Based on the approval and disapproval of people around us
Examples of informal social control
Peer groups
Education
Religion
Family
Workplace
Media
Examples of sanctions from informal social control
Socially excluding a person from a peer group
Being pushed out of a religion group
Disappointed reactions from parents
Is informal social control explicit or implicit
Implicit and less obvious
However just as powerful as it is what you come into contact with every day therefore shapes you as a person more
What is identity
How you view yourself and how other view you
How is identity formed
Family
Peers
Education
Media
Religion
Workplace
How do aspects of identity vary
Vary between different people for example sexuality may be more important for someone who is homosexual than someone who is heterosexual
What is a hybrid identity
Cross between two or more things
Example of a hybrid identity
An individual may have a British identity but also a Muslim therefore identity is a hybrid of both British and Asian ethnicity
Hybrid identities
What did Nayak 2003 say
Used the term white wannabes who are white British males who dress, act and speak in a way that is influenced by black hip hop culture
What is ethnic identity
How you see what ethnicity you are and how others view this
What did Gilroy look at in terms of ethnicity
Looked at identity of young black people and said that they shared experimental of racism and powerlessness
He said this means they create their own identity which links to Black Atlantic showing its not rooted in UK
What did Spencer find in regards to ethnicity and identity
Found that many ethnic minorities are white
Eastern European people tend to stick together as they felt that the British did not welcome them
What does Cashmore and Troyna say in regards to ethnicity and identity
And what sociologist supports what they
Ethnic minorities turn inwards to support each other as a form of protection
Winston james supports this by saying experience of racism unifies cultures
What does Jacobson say in regards to ethnicity and identity
Says young Muslims form a strong identity as a response to the exclusion they feel from society
This leads to British people moving themselves away from the ethnic minority group as they do see that they have anything in common with them
What is multiculturalism and what sociologist talks about this
Hewitt
It is when policies have been designed to get equality in society
Why do the white working class see multiculturalism as unfair
Puts them under more pressure to get jobs
They feel that the ethnic minorities are favoured and get special treatment
This creates tension between groups
Why might second generation immigrants feel more comfortable than their parents
According to Modood
Modood says that second generation ethnic minorities feel they have more of a British identity than their parents
This could be due to the fact that they have been integrated into British society from a younger age
Learnt British language from birth so used it more frequently than parents
Why might ethnicity not be an important factor when it comes to shaping identity
Postmodernists
Postmodernists believe that due to globalisation and media people are creating their own identities
This is where hybrid identity starts with people choosing their own identities
Because of this ethnicity as an identity isn’t important as it used to be
Biological view on gender identity
Sociobiologist Wilson argues that the need to reproduce requires men to be more promiscuous ‘spreading the seed’
Women need to nurture the child and stay faithful to the father of child to help upbringing
Functionalist view on gender identity
Parsons say females have an expressive role as they carry and give birth to children
Males have an instrumental role they must be the breadwinner and protector of the family
How is gender socially constructed
Feminists say this is done by a patriarchal society meaning that a male dominated society reinforces and creates stereotypes
How is the family typically stereotyped
Father as breadwinner
Mother as caregiver
What are other agencies of socialisation that reinforces stereotypes
Media- Mulvey’s male gaze
Peer groups- teach boys and girls to act differently
What was Mac an Ghaill’s study of peer groups
Explored how boys learn to be men in peer groups
Found power was main source of identity for macho lads
Boys valued 3Fs fighting football and swearing
What does Anne Oakley’s term canalisation mean
Boys and girls are socialised into their gender through toys
What does Anne Oakley’s term manipulation mean
The way the rest of society act towards different genders
What group of girls did Jackson find
Ladettes
What does laddish behaviour involve
Drinking, smoking, swearing and disrupting lessons
Laddishness refers to masculine behaviour
What did Denscombe study
Looked at increase in female risk taking behaviour particular smoking
Connells says there’s a range of masculine identities what are they
Hegemonic- most common-breadwinner
Subordinate masculinity- homosexual males
Marginalised masculinity- unemployed men who are not fully accepted as real masculinity
What does Mac and Ghaill’s term crisis of masculinity mean
Refers to the insecurity felt by the working class as there has been a loss of the breadwinner identity
What was Canaan research’s
She questioned both employed and long term unemployed men
She asked the question what is the most important a thing about being a man?
Employed men said drinking, fighting and sexual conquests where as unemployed men said having a job and they felt emasculated due to their unemployment
What is the postmodernists view on gender identity
They believe we live in a world where choosing your identity is far more possible through the development of gloablisation and media
They believe gender identity is no longer fixed as it is now far more acceptable for men to take on female aspects of identity such as fashion e.g Harry Styles
People have more freedom and choice than they did in the past
Gender and identity study
Faludi
She looks at the Spur Posse a group of young males
Their game of sleeping with as many girls as they could to gain points and get that number printed on a t shirt
One was charged with rape of a 12 year old girl and his reply to Faludi was ‘well she had a body’
What is national identity
Considered as the identity of the whole country
How do you express your national identity
Supporting your national team in sport
National anthem
Pride in flag
Language
What does Anderson 1983 argue in regards to nationality and identity
A nation is an imagined community
A member will never meet most of their fellow members
How are national identities socially constructed
Through symbols such as flags, anthems and holidays/festivals
Modern example of promoting nationality and identity
Through media
Supporting country in sporting events e.g World Cup
News story disaster
Why can national identity for British people be confusing
English and British identities can sometimes be seen as the same but first Welsh, Irish, Scottish or northern Irish there is a clear distinction
What does Kumar believe in regards to national identity
Unlike the Scots, Irish and Welsh, English find it difficult to say who they are and English identity is vague
Due to ‘Britishness’ may have been diluted ‘Englishness’
What does Sadar believe in regards to nationality and identity
Believes the world is in the middle of a global identity crisis
He states Britain feels very small in a global world
Sadar argyes that to develop a more confident identity we must embrace diversity
Why do we struggle to find an English identity
Englishness was based on old traditions that are now meaningless to the vast majority living there today
Why is national identity becoming less significant
Young people are arguable ‘citizens of the world’ and national boundaries and cultures are less significant
The internet and media contributed to the breaking down of boundaries
What sociologist suggested countries may display 3 different reactions to globalisation
Stuart Hall
What is Hall’s term cultural homogenisation
Accept global culture and all countries become more similar
What is Hall’s term cultural hybridity
Take in some parts of global culture alongside their more traditional culture
What is Hall’s term cultural resistance
Resist global culture and fiercely protect their cultural heritage
What is sexuality
Who you are sexually attracted to
How have the attitude to homosexuality changed over time
Historically, homosexuality was considered a mental illness that needed to be cured even a criminal offence
Over the last 50 years British attitudes have changed significantly but some countries such as Uganda and Nigeria homosexuality is still illegal
What did Weeks argue in regards to sexuality and identity
Argues that sexual identification is a strange thing and complex
He states that there are people who identify themselves as gay but do not take part in same sex sexual activities but there are also people who take part in same sex activities but don’t identify themselves as gay
What did Reiss study find
Sexuality and identity
He found that young male prostitutes or ‘rent boys’ regarded themselves as heterosexual despite having sex with men for money
What did Mary McIntosh find in her study of the homosexual role
She argued that in Western cultures the role of the homosexual male involves certain expectations e.g feminist mannerisms, a higher voice and attention to appearance
She argued that once the male has accepted the label of homosexual they will then start to fulfil these expectations
What does Plummer state about a homosexual career
Sees homosexuality as a process and discusses the ‘homosexual career’ where the male who has accepted the label of homosexual will seek out others and join a subculture where these homosexual characteristics are the norm
Becoming a homosexual is a. Difficult process of becoming the other
How does Rich believe lesbians are treated in society
Argues that the women’s sexuality is oppressed by men in a patriarchal society through institutions such as marriage and sexual violence
Rich uses the term compulsory heterosexuality to describe the way women are socialised into the heterosexual role making sure they are available to men
Heterosexuality is forced upon women as she argues that the lesbian identity has been written out of existence or painted as abnormal as it is a threat to male dominance and gives women too much power
Changing views on sexual identity
Same sex marriage act 2014
Equality act 2010- could not discriminate against someone due to their sexuality
No longer classified as a condition
Armed forces removed ban on LGBT members 2016
Who are the underclass
Those at the very bottom of society who rely on benefits and blamed for their own situation
Associated with Charles Murray who argues that their identity is one of the laziness and feckless behaviour
He says that they do not take responsibility and have the expectation that they are ‘looked after by the state’
Portrayed negative by media e.g Jeremy Kyle show
Who are the working class
Used to form majority of the population but its shrinking
Made up of manual workers and those with trades and their identity is hard working, straight talking and salt of the earth
What does Hutton 1995 say about the working class
That the decline in trade union memberships has now worn down working class identity
What does Skeggs study on working class women show
Working class women felt humiliated by the ways in which others judge them due to their working class background
As a result women made an effort to show that they are respectable, taking care in how they dress, their leisure pursuits and home decorations
Who are the upper class
Those with inherited wealth often in form of land
They have high levels of cultural capital and they may send their children to boarding school, socialise in exclusive clubs and leisure activities such as opera and polo
What did Mackintosh and Mooney point out in regards to the upper class
That a key feature of the upper class identity is their invisibility
The upper class function of social closure meaning that their education, leisure time and daily lives are separated from and partially invisible to the rest of the population
What is the new ‘super rich’ identity
The upper class is declining in numbers due to the new super rich identity where income and wealth is based on achievement (achieved status) rather than inherited status
Who are the middle class
Now seen as majority of the population
Identity is associated with those who have professional or managerial careers, they are likely to be university educated and to own their own homes
These features now apply to more of the population
What does sociologist Fox discuss in regards to the middle class
The middle class is a very diverse group so Fox discusses ‘upper middles’ ‘middle middles’ and ‘lower middles’ to show these differences
E.g a headteacher will have a different income and identity to a newly qualified teacher but both are middle class
Why is it unlikely that everyone in the middle class sees themselves with the same idenitty
There is a big difference between the public sector jobs and private sector jobs
Study on social class and identity
Forms of Capital- Bourdieu
The ruling class has the power to shape which qualities are valued and are in a position to pass on capital to children
Cultural capital- the knowledge, attitudes, skills, education and advantages that a person has which gives them a higher status
Economic capital- economic resources e.g cash
Social capitals- based on group membership, relationships
All types of capital are interconnected. Cultural capital is most significant for Bourdieu. Parents provide children with cultural capital by transferring the attitudes and knowledge to succeed in education e.g include rights ways of speaking and behaving, knowledge of high culture, etiquette and confidence
Those with high levels of cultural capital will be in a position to gather other forms of capital as well
What is childhood
Can be seen as socially constructed
In some cultures childhood is not seen as a period of innocence they will be working and even fighting as armed soldiers
Even in uk chikdren were working until the mid 19th century
How has childhood changed over the years
Children used to be seen not heard and had no control over decision making
Today children grow up much more quickly as they experience excessive exposure to computer games and social media
Junk food is far more common than home cooked meals
This is called toxic childhood
What sociologist talks about toxic childhood
Sue Palmer
What does sociologist Postman argue about childhood
Childhood came about when adults began to shield children from various aspects of life e.g death
So the innocent child was created
He also suggests that the rise and spread of media has brought about a disappearance of childhood
What is youth
What sociologist talks about youth being culturally specific
Ages between 12 and 25
In our culture youth is socially constructed as a period of changeover from childhood to adulthood and a time of rebellion
However some cultures have no concept of youth e.g the Hamar Tribe
Mead argued the storm and the stress associated with youth is culturally specific
What is young adulthood
Normally branded by career and family
Most form relationships, have children and establish careers
Move into own home and becoming independent from their parents
What is middle age
Associated with higher status and tend to hold power at work
However can be seen as negative as old age comes closer and youth is lost (mid life crisis)
What is old age
Starts at retirement age
Uk culture see ageing bodies as representing ugliness and deterioration
What was Corners study on old age people
Language used by older participants in Cornell’s study was mostly negative , reflecting what the media says
Participants were concerned with becoming a burden and the stereotype they said of later life being a time of ill health and dependency
How is age identity changing
Postmodernists look at trends such as:
Living and working for longer
Anti ageing products and procedures
Extension of youth and childhood
(Age is becoming less significant)
Featherstone and Hepworth argue that ageing is becoming more positive
Retro fashions and comeback tours from bands
What is the social model
Focuses on the social and physical barriers to inclusion such as the design of buildings and public spaces that are inaccessible
This can lead to the view that disability is socially constructed
Shakespeare argues it is very hard to form a positive disabled identity as they see themselves as inferior
There is also a lack of positive role models in public life and media making disabled people feel isolated
What is the medical model
Sees disability as a medical problem and focuses on the limitations caused by impairment
This leads to defying a disabled people by their impairment which leads to victim blaming as society has not met their needs
Shakespeare argues that disabled people are socialised into seeing themselves as victims
What is master status
Disability
Label ‘disabled’ carries a negative stigma
Interactionists call this a master status as it transcends all other aspects of identity and becomes the defining characteristic
What does Gill say according to disability
She is a polio survivor who became disabled in later life
She said reconciling your identity as a disabled person with a previously held ideas about what being disabled means is a common hurdle
What is Zola say in regards to disability
A sociologist who is disabled said the vocabulary we use to describe ourselves is borrowed from society
Used words such as diseased deformed
What is learned helplessness
Describes the way that some disabled people may internalise the idea that they are incapable of changing a situation and therefore fail to take action to help themselves
What encourages learned helplessness
Segregated schooling
Low self esteem
Highly structured life
Decisions made for disabled people
What does Murugami say in regards to disability
Argues a disabled person has the ability to construct a self identity that accepts their impairment but is independent
So they see themselves as a person first then see their disability as one of their characteristics
How might disability identity be changing
Positive role models e.g Paralympic’s
Less judgemental
Society has adapted by law (Disability discrimination act)- better wheelchair access
Postmodernists believes we can now choose and chase our identity
