Paper 1: 4. Psychopathology (COMPLETE)

Question 1

1) What are the names of the 4 definitions of abnormality?

Answer 1

1. Statistical infrequency
2. Deviation from social norms
3. Failure to function adequately
4. Deviation from ideal mental health

Question 2

2) Explain ‘statistical infrequency’ (3 marks)

Answer 2

• Defines ‘normal’ & ‘abnormal’ (1 mark) by looking at the number of times we observe behaviour. (1 mark)
• Common behaviour is ‘normal’ and uncommon/rarely occur is ‘abnormal’. (1 mark

Question 3

3) 3❌- Evaluate ‘statistical infrequency’. (6 marks)

Answer 3

❌ Cultural relativism - Infrequent behaviour in one culture may be common in another culture. (2 marks)

❌Alternative interpretation - Unusual characteristics can be positive. An example is an IQ score. Someone with an IQ over 130 would be considered ‘abnormal’ as this is ‘uncommon’. However, being intelligent is a desirable behaviour and does not require treatement.

❌Labelling - Someone may have a very high / very low IQ but they might have a happy and fulfilled life. So it’s unnecessary to label them as abnormal. Diagnosing someone ‘satisified’ with mental retardation will have a negative effect on the way they view themselves or the way others view them.

Question 4

4) 1✅ 2❌ - Evaluate deviation of social norms (6 marks)

Answer 4

✅ Clear - This definition distinguishes between desirable and undesirable behaviour. A genius would not be viewed as abnormal.

❌Cultural relativism - Social norms vary from one culture to another. This means someone may be considered normal in one culture and abnormal in another. In the UK, hearing voices is a sigh of mental abnormality but in other cultures this is socially acceptable.

❌Suspectible to abuse - This definition has been used to diagnose people as abnormal to regulate unruly behaviour. In the 1950’s, people who disagreed with the Russian government wer sent to a mental institution.

Question 5

5) Explain ‘deviation of social norms’ (3 marks)

Answer 5

• Social norms are things society consider normal and acceptable (1 mark)
• There’s unspoken implicit norms and written explicit norms. (1 mark)
• Anyone who deviates from these social norms is considered abnormal (1 mark)

Question 6

6) Why is the ‘deviation from social norms’ definition better than the ‘statistically frequency’ definition? (2 marks)

Answer 6

The statistical infrequency definition doesn’t differentiate between desirable and undesirable behaviour whilst deviation from social norms does. Statistical frequency could call a genius ‘abnormal’, as high IQ’s are common.

Question 7

7) Explain ‘Failure to Function Adequately’ (3 marks)

Answer 7

-Suggests someone is abnormal if they’re unable to cope with day to day living (3 marks)

Question 8

8) Provide an example of ‘Statistical Infrequency’ (2 marks)

Answer 8

It’s common for a high number of people in London’s population to be scared of spiders, so they’d be seen as normal. (1 mark)
However, it’s uncommon for people from this same population to be scared of buttons. The few that do would be considered abnormal. (1 mark)

Question 9

9) Provide an example of ‘Deviation from Social Norms’ (2 marks)

Answer 9

In the past, homosexuality was classified as ‘abnormal’ and a mental disorder. (1 mark)
This is because at the time homosexuality was viewed as deviating from social norms. (1 mark

Question 10

10) Provide an example of ‘Failure to Function Adequately’ (2 marks)

Answer 10

Being unable to eat regularly and communicate with others. (2 marks)

Question 11

11) 1✅ 3❌ - Evaluate Failure to Function Adequately

Answer 11

✅WHODAS Scale - The WHODAS Scale is an objective way to assess the degree to which someone is functioning or failing to function. Therefore it can determine whether someone is abnormal.

❌Subjective judgements - Someone has to judge whether a patient is failing to function adequately with this definition. Patients might believer they’re suffering but may be judged otherwise. This is why the WHODAS scale is used to rule this out.

❌Cultural relativism - This definition may vary between cultures. This could explain why lower class and ethnic minorities are more likely to be diagnosed with mental disorders as their lifestyles are different to the perfect dominant culture.

❌Behaviour could be functional - This definition fails to consider that some behaviours seem dysfunctional but can be adoptive. Someone may be depressed but the extra attention they receive can be rewarding and functional.

Question 12

12) Outline the study associated with Failure to Function Adequately.

Answer 12

Rodenhan & Seligman proposed a number of signs that can be used to determine when someone’s not coping.

They found there’s suffering (not functioning adequately causes distress and suffering for the individual) and observe discomfort (the person’s behaviour may cause others to feel distressed).

Question 13

13) What is DSM? (Failure to Function Adequately)

Answer 13

DSM helps doctors to diagnose patients. It can be used to assess one’s ability to function using the WHODAS scale. High scores in this scale indicates that the person’s failing to function adequately.

Question 14

4) Explain ‘Deviation from Ideal Mental Health’ (3 marks)

Answer 14

Johada proposed 6 features to being a psychologically healthy person (1 mark) and what makes someone ‘normal’ (1 mark) and suggested that anyone who deviates from that is considered abnormal. (1 mark)

Question 15

15) What are the 6 features of a psychologically healthy person according to Jahoda? (12 marks

Answer 15

1. Positive self-attitude : High self esteem & strong sense of identity (2 marks)
2. Self-Actualisation : Striving to reach their full potential. (2 marks)
3. Resistance to Stress : Should be able to cope with stress (2 marks)
4. Personal autonomy : Independent (2 marks)
5. Accurate perception of reality : Realistic view of the world (2 marks)
6. Adapting to Environment : Adjust to new situations (2 marks)

Question 16

16) 3❌- Evaluate Deviation from Ideal Mental Health (6 marks

Answer 16

❌Cultural relativism - Jahoda’s ideas of mental health are specific to Western cultures. Eg: Self actualisation is specific to individualistic, capitalist cultures like North America but not collectivistic, socialistic cultures like China.

❌Unrealistic criteria - It’s difficult for someone to maintain all 6 features of the definition, so most of the population would be seen as abnormal. Not everyone will be able to reach their full potential but this doesn’t meant they’re abnormal.

❌Resistance to stress - Fails to consider stress can be beneficial for specific people like sportsmen actors or public speakers who use stress to motivate them and perform better.

Question 17

24) Define phobias (3 marks)

Answer 17

A mental disorder characterised by high levels of anxiety in response to a particular stimulus (1 mark).
This excessive fear and anxiety is triggered by a place, object or situation. (1 mark)
The fear is out of proportion to any real dangers (1 mark)

Question 18

25) List three types of

phobia and provide an example for each one (3 marks

Answer 18

1) Specific phobia (object of an animal or situation)
2) Social phobia (public speaking)
3) Agoraphobia (being outside / in public

Question 19

26) What are the 2 BEHAVIOURAL characteristics for PHOBIAS (2 marks)

Answer 19

1. Panic

2. Avoidance

Question 20

27) Briefly explain two behavioural characteristics of phobias (4 marks)

Answer 20

1. Panic - The phobic person may respond to the phobia with panic. They may scream, cry or run away.
2. Avoidance - A phobic person will try avoid coming into contact with the phobic stimulus. This interferes with their social life and work

Question 21

What is an unconditioned response? Note the one from the Little Albert Study

Answer 21

An unconditioned response is a reaction to the unconditioned stimulus. (1 mark)

In Little Albert’s study, it is fear of the noise (the unconditioned stimulus

Question 22

48) What model is used to explain phobias?

Answer 22

The Two Process Model

Question 23

49) Explain the first step of the two step model when explaining phobias.

Answer 23

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - Involves learning to associate something we initially have no fear of (a neutral stimulus) with something that already triggered a fear response (an unconditioned stimulus)

Question 24

KEY STUDY Outline the study associated with Classical Conditionng

Answer 24

Little Albert Study
A study was created by Watson in which he created a phobia in a 9 month old baby called Little Albert. In this study, Little Albert initially showed no anxiety towards a rat at the beginning of the study as he tried to play with it. Watson then made a loud noise everytime Albert interacted with the rat by banging two iron bars against each other.

He found that the noise became an unconditioned stimulus which creates an unconditioned response of fear. When the rat (a neutral stimulus) and the loud noise (unconditioned stimulus) are encountered at the same time, the rat will produce a fear response.
Albert then became afraid of rats as the rat is now an conditioned stimulus which produces a conditioned response (fear). This is generalised to other similar objects as Albert developed a fear of other furry objects ie rabbits and fur coats

Question 25

51) Explain the second step of the two step model when explaining phobias.

Answer 25

OPERANT CONDITIONING - Responses are learnt through classical conditioning decline overtime. However, phobias are long lasting and operant conditioning help explain how these responses continued and are maintained.
It takes place when behaviour is reinforced or punished. Reinforcement increases the frequency of behaviour (1 mark). If someone with aerophobia escapes the phobia by taking an alternative mode of transport, the phobia maintains as he escape of fear reinforces the avoidance behaviour.

Question 26

52) What is the Social Learning Theory? (explaining phobias)

Answer 26

This suggests that phobias are acquired through modelling the behaviour of others. An example is seeing a parent respond to a spider with extreme fear, their child may develop a similar reaction.

Question 27

53) 2✅ 2❌ Evaluate Behavioural Explanations of Phobias

Answer 27

✅ Valid explanation - It explains how phobias can be maintained overtime and this suggests that sufferers need to confront their feared stimulus and then their avoidance behaviour declines and they become less afraid of their phobia.
✅ Support for the Social Learning Theory - Baby monkeys can develop a fear of snakes by witnessing other monkeys show fear in the presence of a snake. Monkeys learn to be afraid.

❌Evolutionary explanation - Sone psychologists ague tht some phobias weren’t learnt via the two process model but an evolutionary root. We may have devloped a biological fear for things posing a danger to our ancestors like snakes and the dark, whihc is why we expain phobias.
❌No cognitive elements - Doesn’t consider that cognitive elements that are involved in a phobia. For example, if a sufferer has irrational thoughts in regards to the feared stimulus.

Question 28

54) What are the two methods to treating phobias? (2 marks)

Answer 28

1. Systematic depression

2. Flooding

Question 29

55) Explain systematic desensitization

Answer 29

Systematic desentization is a behavioural therapy designed to graudually reduce phobic anxiety through classical conditioning. It’s based on the fact one can’t feel afraid and relaxed at the same time. The therapy requires the sufferer to learn a new response to a phobic stimulus.

Question 30

56) What are the three steps of systematic depression?

Answer 30

a) The client and the therapist have to create a fear hierachy in regards to the phobic stimulus, starting from the least fearful to the most fearful situation.
b) The therapist teaches the client relaxation techniques ie breathing exercises or imagery techniques, where the client’s asked to imagine themselves in relaxing situations ie lying on a beach.
c) Finally, the patient exposed to the phobic stimulus whilst in a relaxed state. This takes place across several sessions, starting at the bottom of the fear hierarchy. When the patient can stay relaxed in the precense of the lower levels of the phobic stimulus, they move up the hierarchy. The treatment is successful when the patient can remained relaxed in the high anxiety situation

Question 31

57) Discuss how someone with arahnophobia is taken through the three steps to systematic den

Answer 31

a) someone with arachnophobia may see a picture of a spider (low anxiety), then a toy of a spider, then entering a room with a spider in it, to finally holding a spider (high anxiety).
b) They get taught relaxation techniques ie ie breathing exercises or imagery techniques, where they’re asked to imagine themselves in relaxing situations ie lying on a beach.

c) The patient is reintroduced back to their arachnophobia. The patient has to try stay relaxed whilst exposed to an image o a spider (low anxiety), then a toy of a spider, then entering a room with a spider in it, to finally holding a spider (high anxiety).

Question 32

58) Explain flooding.

Answer 32

Flooding is when the client is immediately exposed to the feared object or situation. Sometimes it only requires one session to cure this phobia. It works because it eradicates avoidance behaviour and the patient quickly learns the phobic stimulus is harmless.

Question 33

59) Discuss how someone with arachnophobia is taken through flooding

Answer 33

The sufferer has a large sider may be placed on them for a period of time and let them crawl on them.

Question 34

2✅ 1❌ - Evaluate systematic depression

Answer 34

✅ Supporting evidence - Gilroy found that patients who received systematic desensitsation felt less fearful of spiders than a control group who were treated by relaxtation but no exposure. This was even evident after 33 months which shows the effcts are long lasting.

✅Preferable - Patients prefer systematic desentization ti flooding as it doesn’t cause the same degree of trauma. This is reflected is thw loer refusal rates to recieve systematic desentisation and low attribuution rates during treatment.

❌Inappropriate - Systematic densisization is not appropriate for all phobias like phobias with underlying evolutionary survival components like the fear of the dark or heights. It’s better for people who developed phobias via personal experience.

Question 35

61) 1✅ 1❌ - Evaluate flooding

Answer 35

✅Efficient - Flooding offers a quick and highly effective way of curing phobias which means the patient’s phobia is cured and the treatment is cheaper than others.

❌Traumatic - Flooding is very traumatic for patients and some people quit halfway thriugh the procedure, reducing the effectiveness of the treatment for some people.

Question 36

• The biological approach to explaining and treating OCD: genetic and neural explanations; drug thera

Question 37

62) What is the genetic explanation for explaining OCD?

Answer 37

• There’s a genetic link to OCD. Lewis noticed that out of his OCD patients, 37% had parents with OCD and 21% had siblings with OCD. This suggests that OCD runs in families which means there’s a possibility the next generation have a genetic vulnerability to develop OCD. The diathesis-stress models suggests certain genes leave some people more likely to develop a mental disorder.
• Researchers have identified genes which creat vulnerability for OCD called candidate genes. This SERT gene affects the transportation of serotin which creates lower levels of the neurotransmitter linked to it. Ozaki found two unrelated families had a mutated version of this gene had a high incident of OCD in their families ie 6 out of 7 family members had OCD.
• OCD is polygenic which means it’s caused by more than one gene. Taylor found evidence that up to 230 different genes may be involved in OCD. Dopamine and serotonin are associated with OCD.

Question 38

LENGTHY QUESTION
What is a neural explanation to OCD? Discuss serotonin & the abnormal function of the lateral & frontal lobes of the brain

Answer 38

• The genes associated with OCD are likely to affect the levels of key neurotransmitters as well as the structures of the brain.
• OCD may be linked to serotin which is a neurotransmitter that regulates mood. Someone who has low levels of serotin meaning their mood is affected. Therefore, OCD may be linked to a reduction in the brain’s functioing of the serotonin system.
• OCD is linked to abnormal descision making. This may be associated with abnormal functioing of the lateral, frontal lobes of the brain. This is responsible for logical thinking and making decisions. There’s evidence to suggest that the left parahippocapmalus (linked with processing unpleasant emotions) functions abnormally in OCD.

Question 39

64) 1✅ 2❌ Evaluate Biological Explanations of OCD (genetic link)

Answer 39

✅Supporting evidence - There’s evidence that there’s a genetic link to OCD. It was found in one study that 68% of indictical twins developed OCD as opposed to 31% of non identical twins.

❌Too many candidate genes - Twin studies suggets that OCD is arguebly under genetic control psychologists have been less successful at pinning down all the genes involved. This is because multiple genes are involved which means the genetic explanation can only provide little predictive value.

❌Environmentally risk factors - Environmental factors increase the risk of developing OCD. Cromer found that over half the OCD patients from their sample had a traumatic event in their past and that OCD was more severe with people with more than one traumatic event. This means that OCD can’t be entirely genetic in origin.

Question 40

65) 1✅ 1❌ Evaluate the Biological Explanations of OCD (neural link

Answer 40

✅Supporting evidence - Some antidepressants work purely in the serotonin system, increasing neurotransmitter levels. These drugs reduce OCD symptons, suggesting the serotonin system is involved in OCD.

❌Cannot determine cause and effect - Can’t say that abnormal functioning causes OCD. Biological abnormalities could be a result of OCD rather than a cause.

Question 41

66) How do you treat OCD?

Answer 41

SSRI - Selective Serotonin Reuptake. Often used alongside CBT as SSRI reduces patient’s emotional symptons which means that patients an engages more effectively with the CBT

Question 42

67) What is an SSRI?

Answer 42

Selective Serotonin Reuptake is an antidepressant drug which aims to increase serotonin levels in the brain. A typical diay dosage of fluxoentin is 20mg although it can b increased for some patients.

Question 43

How does serotonin usually move in the brain?

Answer 43

Usually serotonin is released by certain brain neurons and released by the pre synaptic neuron AND TRAVELS ACROSS A SYNAPSE. The neurotransmitter gives a signal from the presynaptic neurons to the post synaptic neuron where it’s broken down and reused.

Question 44

What do SSRI’S do to serotonin?

Answer 44

They prevent the reabsorption and breakdown of serotonin and increases the serotonin activity in the synapse (as it goes back and forth) ad stimulates the post synaptic neuron

Question 45

What happens if an SSRI isn’t effective after 3 months?

Answer 45

If an SSRI isn’t effective after 3 months, the dose can be increased or combined with other drugs. Tryclics are sometimes used but has more side effects.

Question 46

71) 2✅ 2❌Evaluate drug therapy

Answer 46

✅Cost effective - Drugs are cheap and benefits the NHS. They’re non disruptive to patient’s lives as they need to remember to take the drugs.

✅Clear evidence - Soomro reviewed studies comparing SSRI’s to placebo drugs in OCD treatments and concluded 17 studies showed better resuts for the SSRI’s rather than the placebo. SSRI’S are effective for 70% of patients and the remaining 30% is from CBT.

❌Side effects - Some people don’t feel a benefit from SSRI’s. They can also face students like indigestion, blurred vision and loss of sex drive (don’t worry, this is usually temporary). This, people stop taking the medication.

❌Trauma - OCD might not be biologically caused and might be a response to a traumatic event