Paper 1: 3. Attachment (COMPLETE)

Question 1

KEY STUDY - Outline the method and findings of Lorenz’s study. Discuss imprinting & the critical period.

Answer 1

METHOD: Lorenz removed half a dozen geese eggs from a mother goose and hatched them. The other half (control group) remained with the mother and hatched in a natural environment.

When Lorenz’s eggs hatched, they followed Lorenz. He tried to mix these goslings with their mother, but they followed Lorenz again, meaning he became these goslings’ attachment figure.

FINDINGS: Lorenz identified 2 things.

‘imprinting’ - This is when bird species are mobile from birth and attach themselves to the first living species. they see. In this case, this became Lorenz.
Lorenz found imprinting affected may aspects of the young bird’s later behaviour, including sexual preferences as an adult.
He found that birds who imprinted on humans dislayed courtship behaviour.

‘critical period’ - Lorenz identified a criticial period where imprinting must occur. This can as brief as a few hours after hatching! If imprinting doesn’t occur in that time period, the goslings are unable to form attachments.

Question 2

Evaluate Lorenz’s study.

Answer 2

Generalisiblity to humans
Even though some of Lorenz’s findings have influenced our understanding of human development, it’s difficult to generalise findings on birds to humans.
For example, mammal mothers show more emotional attachment to their offspring than birds do. Therefore, we cannot generalise Lorenz’s results to human behaviour.

Lorenz’s observations have been questioned
Researchers have questioned Lorenz’s conclusion on whether imprints had a permanent effect in mating behaviour.
Guiton et al found chickens imprinted on yellow washing up gloves and when they grew up, they tried to mate with them (as Lorenz predicted).
However, after time the chickens ended up mating with other chickens. This suggests that the impact of imprinting isn’t as permanent as we believed.

Question 3

KEY STUDY

Outline the method and findings of Harlow’s study.

Answer 3

Harlow wanted to study the mechanisms by which newborn rhesus monkeys bond to their mothers.

PROCEDURE
16 monkeys were separated from their mothers immediately after birth and placed in cages with access to two surrogate mothers: one made of WIRE and the other COVERED IN SOFT CLOTH.

In the first condition, the wire mother had a milk bottle and the cloth mother didn’t. In the second condition, it was the other way round.

FINDINGS
Harlow found that contact was more important to the monkeys than food in attachment.

He states for a monkey to develop normally, they must have some interaction with an object during the critical period.

In monkeys, the critcal period is 90 days. If no bond is formed within this time, attachment was impossible.

Harlow followed monkeys who had been deprived of their real mother into adulthood to see if maternal derivation had a permanent effect.
Monkeys raised with a soft toy were unable to develop normal social behaviour - they were more aggressive, less sociable and unskilled at mating. Deprived monkeys who became mothers killed their offspring.

Question 4

Evalaute Harlow’s study

Answer 4

Theoretical value
Harlow’s research provided valuable insight into the understanding of mother-infant attachments. His research showed that attachments aren’t based on food but from the result of contract comfort. It also showed the quality of early relationships having an impact on later social development.

Practical value
Harlow’s research helped social workers understand risk factors in child neglect and abuse si they can intervene to prevent it.
The research is also important for the case of captive monkeys as we now understand the importance of proper attachment figures for baby monkeys.

Unethical
Harlow’s work has been criticised for being unethical. It was clear the monkeys suffered from emotional harm from being in isolation
HOWEVER Harlow’s experiment experiment is justified as it provides a valuable insight into the development of attachment and social behaviour.

Lacks population validity
Because monkeys aren’t the same as humans, the study can’t be generalised to humans and lacks population validity.

Question 5

What are the two explanations of attachment?

Answer 5

• The learning theory / cupboard love theory

- Bowlby’s monotropy theory

Question 6

What is the learning theory / cupboard love theory?

Answer 6

In this explanation, children learn to love whoever feeds them. This emphasises the importance of food.
It uses classical and operant conditioning to explain this.

Question 7

How does classical conditioning help explain attachment?

Answer 7

The learning theory states that attachment is a learned behaviour and is made because of the association between food and the person who provides that food:

• Milk is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) which provides an unconditioned response (UCR) of pleasure in the baby.

Pleasure is an automatic, reflex response. The mother who is at first a neutral stimulus becomes associated mother who is at first a neutral stimulus becomes associated with the pleasure and becomes a conditioned stimulus.

Once conditioning has taken place, the sight of the caregiver produces conditioned response of pleasure and an attachment is said to have been formed

Question 8

how does operant conditioniing help explain attachment?

Answer 8

Operant conditioning suggests that we learn to repeat a behaviour through awards.
- If a behaviour produces a pleasant consequence, it will be repeated; the behaviour is reinforced.
If a behaviours produces an unpleasant consequence, it is less likely to be repeated.

Crying leads to a response from the caregiver e.g. feeding. As long as food is given in response to crying; the behaviour will be repeated. The baby will eventually learn to direct their cries to the person who responds with comforting “social suppressor” behaviour e.g giving food.

Question 9

how does reencofrcement tie with attachments? what is it?

Answer 9

the baby is reinforced with food but the caregiver is also receiving negative reinforcement (when the crying stops, this is rewarding).

Question 10

Evaluation of the learning theory (classical and operant conditioning) 1 3x

Answer 10

Some relevant aspects
There are some relevant aspects of human development that are affected by conditioning. The learning theory focuses on feeding, but could explain that the provision of comfort / social interaction is part of what builds the attchment

Counter evidence from human research - Schaffer & Emerson (1964) studied the attachments formed by 60 infants from birth. They found that a significant number of infants formed attachments with a person other than the one doing the feeding. They found that it was the quality of interaction with the infant that was most important and not just who did the feeding. This goes against the learning Theory.

Learning theory ignores other factors associated with forming attachments
Research has shown that attachment is associated with interactional synchrony, developing reciprocity and sensitive carers.
This goes against the learning theory which only considers food as the reason for attachments being formed.
In other words, the learning explanations are REDUCTIONIST; trying to reduce complex human behaviours to simple terms.

Counter evidence from animal research - Lorenz’s study stated that young animals don’t necessarily attach to those who feed them. His geese imprinted on him before they were even fed and maintained these attachments.

Question 11

Briefly explain Bowlby’s theory

Answer 11

Bowlby believed that babies are born with a drive to attach to another person. This ‘innate’ drive has devloped as a result of evolution.

He states the infant is pre-programmed to attach to an adult and the adult is pre programmed to attach back.

He suggested that attachment behaviours are instinctive and will be activated by any conditions that threaten proximity like separation, security and fear,

Question 12

What is monotropy?

Answer 12

Monotropy is the one main bond a child forms. This bond formed with the person who responded most sensitively to the child’s needs and social relsers (behaviour that encourages attention from adults like smiling and crying.

Bowlby hinted that he believed that this was usually with the mother and the more time the mother spent with them, the better the connection.

Question 13

What is the critical period?

Answer 13

Bowlby proposed a ‘critical period’ of 2 years in which an attachment must be formed.

Question 14

What is the law of continunity?

Answer 14

The more constant and predictable a child’s care is, the better the quality of their attachment.

Question 15

What is the internal working model?What does it show in a child?

Answer 15

The internal working model is a mental representation of a child’s relationship with their primary caregiver.

It also shows how that affects and influences their future social and emotional behaviour.

It’s built on past experiences and helps the individual consider responses and actions. It’s a template for their future relationships.

Question 16

What are the features of the Internal Working Model?

Answer 16

1. A model of other people being trustworthy.
2. A model of themself being valuable.
3. A model of themself being effective when interacting with others.

Question 17

How would the internal working model describe a child who has a reliable caregiver compared to a child who’s been treated poorly?W

Answer 17

A child who has a reliable caregiver and was loved will expect future relationships to be loving and reliable.

However, a child who was treated poorly will form poor relationships as they expect bad treatment from others.

Question 18

What does the IWM say about a child’sability to become a parent in the future?

Answer 18

The IWM also affects the child’s ability to be a parent later in life. Parenting behaviour is based on how the child was treated by their own parents.

Question 19

What is the law of accumulated separation?

Answer 19

The effects of everyday separation from the mother can add up and destroy a child’s attachment o the mother, so separation should be avoided when possible.

Question 20

Evaluate Bowlby’s internal working model & his monotropy theory (2 2x)

Answer 20

Support for social releasers
Brazelton observed the interactional synchrony between mother and babies. They instructed the mothers to ignore their babies’ social releasers (smiling, crying etc). The babies were initally distressed and when ignored the baby gave out other responses ie curling up in a ball. This supports Bowlby’s idea that social releasers bring about caregiving behaviour.

Support for the internal working models
Bailey assured 99 mothers with year old babies on the quality of their attachment to their mothers via interviews.
He found that mothers who reported poor attachments with their own parents were more likely to be poorly attached to their own children. This supports the idea that the Internal Working Model exists and shapes future relationships.

Mixed evidence for monotropy
Schaffer and Emmerson found that although infants tend to have one main attachment, there’s times where a child has more than one. This therefore contradicts Bowlby’s concept of Monotropy.

Socially sensitive idea
The idea of monotropy is socially sensitive as it had implications for the lifestyle choices mothers make. If the mother doesn’t spend enough time with a child, they may be disadvantaged. This might make mothers feel guilty for not constantly being with their child.

Question 21

Outline the Ainsworth’s Strange Situation, including method (GO THROUGH THE ENTIRE STRANGE SITUATION’S 7 STEPS!!) and findings (three types of attachment)

Answer 21

Prodcedure
Ainsworth (1970) devised a technique called the Strange Situation to assess individual differences in attachment types (measure the quality of attachment). 

In Ainsworth’s ‘Strange situation’, infants aged one year to 18 months were observed through video cameras in a purpose-built laboratory playroom with their mothers.

The procedure in Ainsworth’s research consisted of a series of situations, which were standardised for all the babies who took part. 
100 middle class American mothers and infants took part. The infants reaction to a range of situations were observed: .

CHILD AND CAREGIVER ENTER AN UNFAMILIAR PLAYROOM

1. The child is encouraged to explore (tests exploration and secure base)
2. A stranger comes in and tries to interact with the child (tests stranger anxiety)
3. The caregiver leaves the child and stranger together (tests separation and stranger anxiety)
4. The caregiver returns and the stranger together (tests reunion behaviour and exploitation/secure base)
5. The caregiver leaves the child alone (tests separation anxiety)
6. The stranger returns (tests stranger anxiety)
7. The caregiver returns and is returned with the child (tests reunion behaviour)

4 key things were observed:

• Separation anxiety (Infants’ reaction to being separated from the main caregiver)
• Reunion caregiver (How the cild reacts when the caregiver returns)

FINDINGS
1. Secure (Type B)
(65% of American infants)
- Infants are willing to explore but regularly go back to their caregiver (secure base behaviour).
- They show moderate separation anxiety and stranger anxiety.
- Infants accept comfort from the caregiver in the reunion stage and show joy.

Insecure avoidant (Type A) (21% of American infants)

Infants are willing to explore but do not seek proximity or show secure base behaviour.
They do not react when the caregiver leaves or when they return.
They also show little stranger anxiety (they do not get upset around strangers)
They do not require comfort at the reunion stage.

Insecure resistant (Type C) (14% of American infants)
Infants are not willing to explore their surroundings.
They seek greater proximity to their caregiver.
They show huge stranger anxiety and separation anxiety and push away their caregiver when reunited

Question 22

Evaluation of the Strange Situation

Answer 22

Validity
The strange situation is high in validity.
This is because research has shown that infants classed as secure go on to have better outcomes such as success in school.
Infants classed as insecure resistant go on to have the worst outcomes including being more likely to become bullies in later childhood.
This suggests that the strange situation is valid because it can explain later behaviours and outcomes.

Good reliabiilty
Different observers watching the same children generally agree on the type of attachment the child is showing.
This is because the strange situation takes place under controlled conditions with behavioural categories that are easy to observe.
Bick et al looked at inter-rater reliability and found that observers agreed on attachment types 94% of the time.

There is at least 1 more attachment type
Ainsworth only proposed three attachment types.
However Solomon pointed out that a minority of children show an attachment type called DISORGANISED ATTACHMENT.
This attachment type is a mix of resistant and avoidant behaviours.

Cultural diferences
Theres some doubt about whatever the Strange Situation is cultural bound.
This is for two reasons - first, cultural differences in childhood experiences are likely to mean children respond differently to the Strange situation. Second, caregivers from different cultures behave differently in the Strange sutuation. Takaashi noted that the test does not work in Japan because Japnes emothers are rarely separated from their babies, so theres high levels o separation anxiety. Also, in the rueinion stage Japense mothers rushed to the baby so the child’s response was hard to boserve

Question 23

VAN IJZENDOORN’s study: State the aim, method and findings

Answer 23

AIM: Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg aimed to investigate cross-cultural variation in attachment using information from previous studies. They carried out a meta-analysis (looking at findings from several different studies and then making a conclusion)

METHOD: Van Ijzendoorn looked at 32 studies of the strange situation which had been carried out in 8 countries in total. They carried out a meta-analysis (using findings from several different studies).
They only used data which had been collected using the Strange Situation test (but from different countries)
They reviewed 32 world-wide studies involving eight countries (both Western and non-Western) and more than 2000 children took part.
There were interesting `patterns of attachment types (secure, avoidant, resistant) within and between cultures.
They were comparing the studies to find out if there were any general trends across cultures.

Results:
Secure attachment was the most dominant form of attachment in all cultures. However, the proportion varied from 75% in Britain to 50% in China.

However, there were significant differences in the amount of insecure attachments:
In Western cultures the 2nd most dominant type of attachment was Insecure avoidant.
In non-Western cultures, the 2nd most dominant attachment type was Insecure resistant.
They also found there was more variation within a sub-culture than between cultures.
For instance some studies conducted in the USA showed 46% secure attachment types compared to other studies conducted in other parts of the USA which showed 90% secure attachment types.

Question 24

EVALUATION of Van Izjendoorn 1 3x

Answer 24

Samples were unrepresentative of culture - One explanation of the large within-culture variation is that some studies involved middle-class infants whereas others involved working-class infants.  It is over simplistic to view Britain or America as one single culture, as within each country there are many sub-cultures that may differ in the nature of attachment types. 
This means that comparisons between countries may have little meaning as there are different cultures within these countries.

Method of assessment is biased - The Strange Situation test assumes that behaviour has the same meaning in all cultures, when in fact the cultural perception and understanding of behaviour differ greatly. The Strange Situation was created and tested in the USA, which means that it may be culturally biased (ethnocentric), as it will reflect the norms and values of American culture. For example, the belief that attachment is related to anxiety on separation. This may not be the case in other cultures, e.g. Japan

Large Samples – a strength of combining research from other countries is that it produces a large sample. This is a strength because large samples increase internal validity by reducing the impact of anomalous results (caused by doing the method in the wrong way or one very unusual participant who behaves in an unexpected way)

The strange situation lacks validity
Kagan et al suggests that attachment type is more related to the temperament of the infant than to the relationship with the primary caregiver. This would mean that the strange situation is not measuring attachment type, it is simply measuring anxiety

Question 25

What is Bowlby’s Maternal Deprivation?

Answer 25

The underlying assumption of Bowlby’s Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis is that continual disruption of the attachment between infant and primary caregiver (i.e. mother) could result in long term cognitive, social, and emotional difficulties for that infant
Bowlby suggests that if a child is not able to form an attachment within the first 2 ½ years of life, and is deprived of emotional care during this time, the child would experience psychological damage.

Question 26

what are the two main categories of the effects of development

Answer 26

Intellectual development

Children may suffer from mental retardation, characterised by abnormally low IQ. Goldfarb (1947) found lower IQ in children who had remained in institutions compared to children who were fostered and had received emotional care

Emotional development

Affectionless psychopathy is the inability to feel guilt or strong emotion for others. This prevents normal relationships and is associated with criminal behaviour. These individuals do not feel remorse for their actions as they cannot appreciate other peoples feelings

Question 27

Discuss Bowlby’s 44 thieves study, including the aim, method and findings.

Answer 27

The aim was to investigate the long-term effects of maternal deprivation.
He wanted to see whether delinquents have suffered deprivation.
METHOD
Bowlby interviewed 44 adolescents who were referred to a child guidance clinic in London because of stealing.
Bowlby selected another group of 44 children to act as ‘controls’.
He interviewed the parents from both groups to state whether their children had experienced separation during the critical period and for how long.

FINDINGS
Bowlby found that 14 out of the 44 thieves could be described as affectionless psychopaths (they were not able to care about or feel affection for others).
Of this 14, 12 had experienced maternal deprivation within the first 2 years of their lives.
In the control group only two had had such a separation.
None of the control group were affectionless psychopaths.
Bowlby concluded that the reason for the affectionless psychopathy in the first group was due to maternal deprivation.

Question 28

EVALUATE 44 THEIEVES STUDY

Answer 28

Animal studies show effects of maternal deprivation
Levy et al showed that separating baby rats from their mothers for 1 day had a permanent effect on their social development.

Counter-evidence
Not all research has supported Bowlby’s findings. For example, Lewis partially replicated the 44 thieves study on a larger scale, looking at 500 young people. In her sample a history of early prolonged separation from the mother did not predict criminality or difficulty in forming close relationships.
This suggests other factors may affect the outcome of early maternal deprivation. It also questions the reliability of Bowlby’s findings

Question 29

KEY STUDY
State the aim method and findings of
Rutter’s English and Romanian adoptee study

Answer 29

Procedure
Rutter followed a group of 165 Romanian orphans adopted in Britain. Rutter and his colleagues wanted to establish the extent to which good care could make up for poor early experiences (their time in institutional care).
Physical, cognitive and emotional development was assessed at ages 4, 6, 11 and 15 years.
A group of 52 British children adopted around the same time have served as a control group.

FINDINGS
When they first arrived in the UK half the adoptees showed signs of delayed intellectual development and the majority were severely undernourished.
At the age of 11 the adopted children showed differential rates of recovery which related with their age of adoption.
Intellectual development: The mean IQ of those children adopted before the age of 6 months was 102, compared with 86 for those adopted between 6 months and 2 years and 77 for those adopted after the age of 2.
ATTACHMENT TYPE
If adoption took place after 6 months, the adopted children tended to show symptoms that included attention seeking, clinginess and social behaviour directed towards adults, both familiar and unfamiliar (as institutional children would have been used to having multiple carers).
In contrast those who were adopted before the age of 6 months rarely displayed disinhibited attachment.

Question 30

The Bucharest Early Intervention project - hint 95/50

Answer 30

Zeanah et al assessed attachment type in 95 children aged 12-31 months, who had spent most of their time in institutional care.
They were compared to 50 children who had never been in an institution.
Their attachment type was measured using the strange situation.
In addition carers were also asked about unusual social behaviour including clingy, attention seeking behaviour.

FINDINGS
They found only 19% of the institutional group were securely attached, and 65% were classified as having ‘disorganised attachment’. In contrast to the control group in which 74% of were classified as securely attached in the strange situation.

Question 31

EVALUATION to the romaniann studies

Answer 31

Real Life application
studying Romanian orphans has led to improvements in the way children are cared for in institutions.
E.G. orphanages and children homes try to have one or two carers for each child instead of having many different carers for infants.
This person is called a keyworker and allows the child to form an attachment and prevent disinhibited attachment.

Fewer extraneous variables
Prior to the Romanian orphanage studies, other researchers had examined infants in institutions but factors such as neglect, abuse or bereavement were confounding variables that may have had an effect on the infants before they entered the orphanage. Whereas orphans in the Romanian study had been in the institution from infancy.

The Romanian orphanages were not typical
Although much useful information came from the Romanian orphanage study, it is possible that conditions were so bad that results cannot be applied to understanding the impact of better quality institutional care.
For example the standards of care were low when it came to forming relationships between carers and children; and there were low levels of intellectual stimulation.
This questions the generalisbility of the Romanian orphanage study

ethical issues
The problem with Rutter’s ERA Project is that children were not randomly assigned to conditions. Children adopted early may have been more sociable and this could be a confounding variable. The Bucharest early intervention project did use random sampling; Romanian orphans were randomly allocated to institutional care or fostering. However, this raises some ethical issues.

The problem with Rutter’s ERA Project is that children were not randomly assigned to conditions. Children adopted early may have been more sociable and this could be a confounding variable. The Bucharest early intervention project did use random sampling; Romanian orphans were randomly allocated to institutional care or fostering. However, this raises some ethical issues.

The problem with Rutter’s ERA Project is that children were not randomly assigned to conditions. Children adopted early may have been more sociable and this could be a confounding variable. The Bucharest early intervention project did use random sampling; Romanian orphans were randomly allocated to institutional care or fostering. However, this raises some ethical issues.

The long term effects are not clear
Rutter’s adoptees have been followed up into their mid-teens and found some lasting effects of early experience; in particular for those who were adopted late.
However, it is too soon to say with certainty whether children who spent longer in institutions and are currently behind in intellectual ability will never catch up.
Equally, those who were adopted early (before 6 months) who appear to have no issues now may experience emotional problems as an adult.

Question 32

Relationships in later childhood

Answer 32

Securely attached infants tend to have the best quality childhood friendships whereas insecurely attached infants have difficulty making friends.

Myron-Wilson & Smith (1998) used questionnaires to assess attachment type and bullying involvement in 196 children aged 7-11 from London and found that secure children were less likely to be bullies. Insecure avoidant children were most likely to be victims and insecure resistant children were the ones more likely to be bullies.

Question 33

Findings of McCarthy’s romantic relationships study and findings

Answer 33

McCarthy (1999) studied 40 adult women and found that those who were securely attached as infants had the best adult friendships and romantic relationships.
Adults who were insecure resistant had problems maintaining friendships and those who were insecure avoidant struggled with intimacy in romantic relationships.

Question 34

State the method and findings for the study on assoication and adult relationships (hint: love quiz)

Answer 34

Method
The study consisted of researchers analysing 620 replies to a love quiz in an American newspaper.
The quiz had 3 sections. The first assessed the respondents’ current or most important relationship. The second part assessed general love experiences such as the number of partners. The third section assessed attachment type by asking respndents to choose which of three statements best described their feelings.

FINDINGS
56% of respondents were identified as securely attached with 25% insecure avoidant and 19% insecure resistant. Those reporting secure attachments were the most likely to have good and longer lasting romantic experiences. The avoidant respondants tended to reveal jealousy and fear of intimacy. These findings suggest that patterns of attachment behaviour are selected in romantic relationships.

Question 35

Evaluation of Bowlby’s early attachment types theory - 4X (2 of which are studies)

Answer 35

Problems with validity – Most studies on attachment between infant and caregiver use questionnaires and interviews (years later as a follow up). This means the data lacks validity as people may lie or not be honest about their relationships when questioned. In addition, when adults are asked questions about early relationships in childhood, people may forget or recall inaccurately as their answers are based on retrospective memories.

Association does not mean causation – It is suggested that early attachment types may influence later adult relationships. However, there could be alternative explanations for the link between infant attachment types and adult relationships such as parenting styles or temperament. This goes against Bowlby’s view that early attachment types may influence later adult relationships

Evidence of continuity of attachment type is mixed – Zimmerman (2000) assessed infant attachment types and adolescent attachment to parents and found no relationship between the quality of infant and adolescent attachment. This is a problem because the internal working model suggest that there should be a relationship between the two. However, not all research supports this.

The Influence of early attachment is probabilistic.
Bowlby may have exaggerated the influence of attachment types on later relationships. Ann Clarke & Alan Clark state that people who have poor attachments as children have a greater RISK of having bad relationships as adults. But this is not always the case.

Hard to find supporting evidence
Internal working models are unconscious and it is difficult to get evidence from participants about something that is unconscious. People can only answer questions about things they are aware of. Because of this, research into internal working models is criticised for not giving direct evidence.